Zaytuna Mosque and University (Tunisia) Chapter 5: 1895 to 1911 AD Education Reformation and Secularization by Keith W. Martin PhD

Chapter 5

PREPARATION FOR 1912 REFORM DECREES 

From the middle of the 1890's throughout the period discussed in this chapter (1895-1911), there were various events which applied pressure on Zaytuna to improve its curriculum and to adopt modern methods of teaching. One of the chief events affecting Zaytuna was the establishment of the Khalduniyyah school in 1896. This school, which was organized by young Tunisians and French officials, not only provided Zaytuna students with an education in the modern sciences, but it was also one of the stimuli which motivated these students to seek reform.  

During the period discussed in this chapter, there were various reform efforts by students, professors, political officials, and newspapers; but only minor reforms were made at Zaytuna. For example in 1898 Machuel formed an unsuccessful reform council to increase the study of modern sciences at Zaytuna. During this period, at-Tahir Ibn Ashur, inspired by the visits of Shaykh Muhammad Abduh (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, pp. 75-76), the great Egyptian Muslim reformer, formulated and wrote many of his ideas on modernization. Students also began organizing to bring about reform. This action led to a student strike in 1910 to protest the conditions at Zaytuna. Thus this was a significant period of reform efforts for Zaytuna. This was also a period in which French schools were further established with their modernizing effect on Muslim students. These reform efforts and the affairs of Zaytuna from 1895 to 1911 are examined in this chapter. 

Zaytuna At The Turn Of The 20th Century 

An article in Le Depeche Tunisienne dated November 9, 1896 presented a picture of the affairs of Zaytuna during the mid-1890's. This article gives valuable insight relative to the entrance procedures which Zaytuna students followed as well as aspects concerning the educational procedures at Zaytuna. 

This article stated that new students entering Zaytuna followed a four-course program for a lengthy but unspecified period of time. This program had one course on Sidi Khalid, or elementary grammar, one course on jurisprudence, one course on the method of chanting the Qur'an, and one course on theology. The students attended this four-course program until they were officially registered on the rolls of Zaytuna University. 

Before a student could officially register, he had to have followed the four-course program and presented himself before four professors for their evaluation. After this he was given a certificate de frequentation, which officially admitted him to lessons in the Great Mosque. At this time the student had to appear before the inspectors of studies. After an examination on the Qur'an, the new student was authorized to write his name on the register of the University and to purchase a notebook on which his various professors would write the works he had studied and any additional comments on his ability (La Depeche Tunisienne, November 9, 1896).

In the lectures at the Mosque, the popularity of the professors was determined by the number of students who circled them as they sat on mats or rugs with their backs against one of the pillars of the room of prayer. The best students sat closest to the professor and were occasionally called on to repeat "the last utterance of the teacher," while the teacher gathered his thoughts. These students were also the ones who sometimes interrupted the class by the introduction of some "rebellious ideas."

The students were given two main exams during their stay at Zaytuna. The first qualified them for the title of al istlfa' and brought little more than exemptions from military service and taxes. The second examination resulted in the tatwia certificate, the Zaytuna diploma. The few receiving this diploma were given the title of mutawwaa (possessor of the tatwia). This diploma gave these graduates the right to teach. However these graduates received no pay for this service unless they were replacing a professor who was absent without an excuse (La Depeche Tunisienne, November 9, 1896)." 

Machuel notes that in the later part of the 1890's, there were only a few teachers who had studied the new methods and the "works published in Egypt and Syria (Machuel, 1896, pp. 385-98)." This lack of idea exchange was a product of the isolationism of thought which had developed in Tunisia and was hindering the quality of education at Zaytuna. This failure in communications between the East and the West was much different than in the early days of Islam when men like Ibn Tumart, the founder of the Almohad Dynasty, traveled from the West to the East in order to further their education at Baghdad and Damascus (Julien, 1970, p. 94). 

In describing the teaching methods which were used at Zaytuna by the end of the 19th century, Machuel stated that the teacher would either read a passage or have a student read it. Then the passage was often explained "repeating nearly word for word the terms and the examples of the works" the students had in their hands. It was rare that a student asked questions because he was forbidden to interrupt the teacher to ask for more information. All questions were reserved until the end of the lesson (Machuel, 1896, pp. 385-98). The teacher rarely prepared the students for new material. Nowhere in the Mosque could a blackboard be found on which the teacher could illustrate the points he was discussing and even such subjects as arithmetic and geometry had few or no demonstrations to help the students understand the points under consideration (Jamail, 1931, No. 117). 

The students at Zaytuna took few notes, but "strained" to memorize everything. Machuel noted that it wasn't rare in the late 1890's to meet a student who knew Arabic grammar perfectly, but was unable to write even a simple letter or document (Machuel, 1896, pp. 385-98). 

The students at Zaytuna had little direction in their educational pursuits. They were neither helped in choosing the most useful classes nor were they informed which teachers would be the most profitable to them. These organizational and instructional problems, according to Machuel, forced many Zaytuna students to take 6, 12, and sometimes even 15 years to accomplish the same thing which one in a better educational setting could have finished in 5 or 6 years (Machuel, 1896, pp. 385-98). Machuel's estimate of the years students spent at Zaytuna is based more on his critical attitude toward the educational procedures of Zaytuna and his inability to fully understand Zaytuna's role in the traditional Muslim society rather than on supported facts. However the statement of Machuel did have some truth to it, for it was taking the students a long time to obtain their education. A more conservative estimate of the time spent at Zaytuna by these students was given by Lasram who stated that the average student took 8 years to complete his Zaytuna education (Lasram, 1908, II pp. 156-57). 

By 1906 the number of courses in religious sciences had increased to 134. There were also 187 courses relating to judicial sciences, 173 courses in grammar, 73 courses in rhetoric, eloquence, and logic, and 13 courses in other subjects. The fact that there was little or nothing taught about the mathematical sciences, physics, or the natural sciences (Loth, 1907, pp.78-79) demonstrates that the non-Islamic subjects were given a position of low significance at Zaytuna. 

In a report to the "Congres de L'Afrique du Nord" in 1908, Muhammad Lasram presented an interesting account of a typical day in the life of a Zaytuna student. The account goes as follows:

At dawn he [the student at Zaytuna] arises, he proceeds to his oblations and performs his prayer . . . he has enrolled himself among the lectures of the Qur'an in the small mosque of his madrasa.  

At the first hour [of lectures at Zaytuna] he goes to the Great Mosque. He has chosen his own professor. He is usually present 5 hours a day, sometimes 6 and sometimes 8. During this time he learns by heart the texts on which tomorrow's lessons will be. At the same time, he prepares for the examinations to which he will have to submit himself. 

At noon he returns to his lodgings and eats and returns to the Great Mosque where the courses proceed without interruption until the last hour [of the school day]. 

After sundown and the prayer of the maghrib, he returns fatigued. He spends the time from supper to bed time to study the texts with one or two of his schoolmates, with whom, occasionally, he shared his room . . . , where the light is only provided by a window opened onto the interior court of the madrasa. One time or another [if he is ambitious and interested] he comes to be present . . . to the conferences on the modern sciences given to [those in] the Khalduniyyah or . . . the Sadiqiyyah College (Lasram, 1908, II p. 78-79). 

In this manner many Zaytuna students spent each day. They would attend class, memorize the material they needed to know the next day, and then go to bed. However if the students were ambitious, they would attend the night lectures given at Khalduniyyah. In these lectures the students were able to learn about "modern science" and hence obtain information not available at Zaytuna. 

The programs of Zaytuna were combined in such a way as to impress upon the students the dogmas of Islam. In this way the school hoped to assist the students in better understanding the Islamic rules of conduct. The study of natural science was often considered irrelevant to this moral development. 

In Table 3 there is a reproduction of the budget for Zaytuna as researched by Lasram in 1908. From this information it seems that in 1908 Zaytuna was self-supported by various habus funds (money obtained through the administration of property which was placed in the care of religious leaders). 

Table 3

Zaytuna Budget (Lasram, 1908, pp. 144-73) 

Receipt                                                                              Amount in Francs

Renting of the property constituted as Habus

       for the profit of the Grand Mosque                                           9,500 fr. 

Money from the enzels from habus property                                    6,622 fr. 

Money from olives (habus of the Great Mosque)                              6,700 fr

Excess of the revenues of the public habus

       belonging to different endowments                                        70,576 fr. 

                                                         Total                                 93,848 fr. 

Expenses

Salary of the Shaykh al-Islams and the Qadis                                17,342 fr. 

Salary of the professors of the first class                                       20,716 fr. 

Salary of the professors of the second class                                    5,538 fr. 

Salary of the librarians                                                                  5,940 fr. 

Salary of the personnel of the religion                                            8,363 fr.

Salary of the lectors of the Qur'an                                                 4,800 fr. 

Salary of the muezzins                                                                 3,600 fr. 

Supplementary allocations to the personnel of the

       religion out of the revenues of the habus set

       aside for this purpose                                                          15,701 fr. 

Furniture                                                                                     7,818 fr.

Repairs                                                                                       4,818 fr-

Total                                                                                         93,848 fr.

Decrees issued affecting Zaytuna  

There were three decrees issued between 1895 and 1910 which affected Zaytuna. These proclamations covered various aspects of Zaytuna, but were not lengthy or comprehensive.  

Decree of April 4, 1896: The Decree of April 4, 1896 dealt with the examinations at Zaytuna. It stated that the yearly student examinations would be held on the 13th of May instead of the 13th of June as had been the case in previous years (Zeys, 1901, p. 369). This action gave the students who were studying for the examination of the tatwlc (which was usually held around June or July) a reprieve from having to study for two chief examinations at the same time. 

Decree of February 8, 1905; An addition to the Decree of May 18, 1875 was issued in decree form on February 8, 1905. The new decree gave further regulations concerning the people who would be permitted to use the library (Zeys, 1906, p. 523). Although this decree had no major effect on the education at Zaytuna, it demonstrated further government interest in the use of the library as a facilitator of learning.

Decree of April 29, 1908: On April 29, 1908 a decree was issued which affected the professors at Zaytuna. At this time it was declared that no mutawwaa could take the competitive examinations for the post of second class professor at Zaytuna unless he had taught at least two years after obtaining the tatwia (Zeys, 1909, p, 1088). 

This was simply a restatement of part of the Decree of 1892. The need to restate portions of a previous decree seems to support at-Tahir Ibn Ashur's comment that the professors often manifested apathy towards the decrees (Ibn Achur, 1967, p. 118). It appears that the government hoped to cure this apathy by issuing further decrees which reemphasized the needed reform. 

The Establishment Of Khalduniyyah 

The establishment of the Khalduniyyah school was one of the significant events which helped in bringing reform to Zaytuna, for it was in this secondary school that Zaytuna students could obtain information about the modern sciences and the European languages. Since this school had such an important role in connection with Zaytuna, it is explained in some detail in this section. 

The establishment of Khalduniyyah was a result of six important factors: the work of Rene Millet (Resident General of France in Tunis); the work of Lieutenant-Colonel Rebillet, former attaché to Rene Millet; the efforts of the young Tunisian students; the success of Sadiqiyyah College; the experience of Al-Azhar under the influence of Shaykh Abduh; and the need for a modern education in order to qualify for the available jobs. 

Rebillet and Millet took an active part in the creation of Khalduniyyah. Before its creation Millet had discussed the compatibility of having a mixture of science and religion with Zaytuna professors; in Millet's opinion these discussions were one of the factors which contributed to this school's creation (Millet, 1908, pp. 32-34). Before the Khalduniyyah was established, Rebillet had observed the "literary movements" in Egypt and had considered that the Tunisian students could benefit from using some of the "new methods adopted in the Orient." He further hoped that the introduction of these ideas would better prepare Zaytuna for a role in the "scientific renaissance (Lasram, 1908, pp. 173-74)."  

Another factor which affected the establishment of Khalduniyyah was the "enterprise experience of the Al-Azhar University under the supervision of Shaykh [Muhammad] Abduh." In this experience Abduh was attempting to introduce a scientific education at Al-Azhar (Chenoufi, 1968, pp. 70-71). Many of the young Tunisian students who were followers of Abduh knew of this experience. These followers, like Bechir Sfar [al-Bashir Sfarr], were part of the group who established Khalduniyyah. 

Sadiqiyyah College and the job situation in Tunisia were closely connected in their influence on the formation of Khalduniyyah. As a result of the more liberal curriculum at Sadiqiyyah, the Protectorate government was more willing to "bless" Sadiqiyyah with grants. The government also gave students of Sadiqiyyah the opportunity to find employment in government positions (Khairallah, 1968, pp. 70-71). Because of the advantage that the liberal curriculum at Sadiqiyyah brought, the young Tunisian students who attended were motivated to establish Khalduniyyah. This new school was designed to "broaden the range of knowledge" of Zaytuna students (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 101), and close "the gap which was in the education at the Zaytuna Mosque (al-Fadil Ibn, 1972, pp.  70-71)." Furthermore this action seemed to be an effort to better prepare these students for the available jobs in the developing state of Tunisia. 

At a conference in Marsa in October 1896 the idea concerning a Muslim institution for supplementing the education at Zaytuna was first presented and approved. At this meeting, a committee was organized to elaborate the statues for the conduct of such an institution. These statues were submitted to Machuel, the Director of Education in Tunisia. This institution, which took its name from the great historian Ibn Khaldun, was officially established by order of the Prime Minister on December 22, 1896. 

Various programs at Khalduniyyah were defined in the second article of the order. This stated that "the object of this society is to research the proper mediums for developing instruction for the Muslims." In achieving this the following plan was to be instituted; (1) Organized courses and conferences were to be held which included history, geography, French, physics, chemistry, and other similar classes. (2) A fund for providing financial assistance to deserving students was to be established. (3) The creation of libraries was to be encouraged. (4) "A bulletin" was to be written in both French and Arabic. This bulletin was for making the French and the Tunisians aware of each other's culture (Lasram, 1908, II pp. 173-80.  

There were 71 students who attended Khalduniyyah in 1897 (La Khaldounia, 1906, p. 19). This figure represents less than 10% of the approximately 900 students who were attending Zaytuna at the same period of time. This small percentage indicated a state of apprehension among the Zaytuna students and/or the students' parents about this institution. They may have been very skeptical about the advantages of learning about the "modern sciences." It is also possible that due to the heavy work load that the Zaytuna students had they weren't motivated enough to engage in more work. Many may also have been more interested in gaining exemption from the military, personal taxes, and other items than in obtaining an education. Whatever the reason may have been, it is evident that only a few of the Zaytuna students attended Khalduniyyah in its beginning years. 

Even in the following years from 1897 to 1905 the number of students at Khalduniyyah remained relatively low. The following list gives an idea of the number of students at Khalduniyyah from 1897 to 1905: 1897-- 71; 1898— 75; 1899-- 80; 1900-- 87; 1901— 99; 1902-- 108; 1903-- 115; 1904-- 130; 1905-- 156 (La Khaldounia, 1906, p. 19). 

One of the problems that Khalduniyyah had to face was acceptance by the conservative factions of Tunis. Many of the older generation felt that the creation of Khalduniyyah would result in the "overthrow of the old traditional Muslim education." Others felt that the Khalduniyyah was a "docile instrument" in the hand of the Protectorate government to "undermine" Zaytuna. Thus to many conservatives in Tunis, Khalduniyyah was another "hostile foe" influenced by the French (Lasram, 1908, p. 176). This attitude was a major characteristic of the feelings of the traditional factions concerning all modernization attempts at Zaytuna. 

The budget of the Khalduniyyah came from various sources. The following are some of these sources: (1) Subscription from the members of the society; (2) An annual subsidy from the administration of habus; and (3) Various other sources.  

The teaching of French was an important part of the education at this institution (La Khaldounia, 1906, p. 9) (various reports have stated that French was taught at Zaytuna at various periods of time, but it seems that during most of the period investigated in this dissertation, Khalduniyyah was the institution in which Zaytuna students studied French). Learning this language helped Zaytuna students to become aware of French ideas and to formulate their own ideas concerning the reasons behind the European advancements.  

Education at both Khalduniyyah and Sadiqiyyah to some extent produced the results feared by the conservatives. One of the results of an introduction to a modern curriculum was that the students became more dissatisfied with the education being given at Zaytuna. This factor helped promote the student strikes in the 20th century that brought reforms to Zaytuna. Thus from a conservative's point of view, one could state that these reforms "undermined" the foundations of a great institution of Islamic studies by making it more secular through increasing government involvement and through increasing the number of non-religious classes offered at Zaytuna.  

Although Khalduniyyah met with varying degrees of acceptance, some advancements were made regarding the education that Zaytuna students received there. Bechir Sfar, one of the founders of Khalduniyyah stated the following concerning this institution and its accomplishments: 

This society contributed. . . in the measure of its means to  distribute between the Muslims the . . . sciences, to develop their intelligence and, by geography to make them know the         rank of each nation, to destroy the prejudices and to open them in the practical and commercial domain, well in the horizons which were totally unknown to them [The students of Zaytuna] . . . . It had for its object the moral and intellectual relieving of Muslims and [with] this object we have the firm hope of attaining progress (Sfar, 1938, p. 19). 

From what Sfar states, one can learn that the purpose of Khalduniyyah was not only to strive to present "modern sciences" to those students who attended its lectures, but it also hoped to eliminate the prejudices which existed between the Muslims and the Europeans.

Table 4 presents the average attendance at Khalduniyyah courses during the first two months of 1906. In this table, the various courses offered and the mean number of listeners at Khalduniyyah's lectures are listed. 

Table 4

Average Attendance at Courses During

the First Two Months of 1906 (La Khaldounia, 1906, p. 9) 

Nature of Courses                                                     Mean of Listeners 

Arithmetic and geometry                                                       36

History and geography                                                         130

Algebra, survey, topography, and design                                 20

Physics and natural sciences                                                   12

Calligraphy                                                                            40

Arabic essay                                                                          30

French:

        Elementary                                                                    50
        Secondary                                                                     40

Superior                                                                       24

Grammar and Literature                                                         29 

Table 4 demonstrates that the majority of students were concentrated in the areas of history, geography, and French. These three areas can be examined with interest. First of all, the strong concentration in the areas of history and geography was probably due to the fact that these courses were, though mentioned in the Decree of 1875, weakly emphasized at Zaytuna. There was only one history and geography class offered at Zaytuna in 1906. This lack of emphasis on history and geography tended to make the Zaytuna students unaware of their shortcomings as far as their relation to the larger world. Thus these students seem to have had a strong desire to learn about the historical events that had produced the present conditions in both Tunisia and the world. They seemed interested in the geographical location of Tunisia and its relation to the other countries of the world. This apparent interest is significant when analyzed from a nationalistic point of view. By developing an awareness of their place in history and the world, these students were better able to understand their country and develop a pride in it. This knowledge helped them obtain a desire for government by Tunisians, who could really understand the needs of the country. 

The study of French ranked second only to history and geography for various reasons. It helped the students to communicate with the French in Tunisia, and it opened a whole world of written material to them. It helped them to be better prepared for government jobs which required knowledge of both Arabic and French. Thus the study of French was strongly emphasized in the programs at Khalduniyyah (La Khaldounia, p. 9). 

The Khalduniyyah diploma

Because the French usually failed in their attempt to motivate the Zaytuna officials to adopt "modern sciences", they, in an attempt to reach their objectives, supported not only the creation of the Khalduniyyah School, but also the adoption of a diploma for Khalduniyyah graduates. This diploma was a proposal of Machuel and was carried out on November 12, 1898 by an official decree. 

The Khalduniyyah diploma was obtained by passing a test which was given each June (Fitoussi and Benazet, 1931, pp. 519-20). This diploma was not only a piece of paper stating that these students had completed certain classes, but it opened the doors to various government jobs (Lasram, 1908, II pp. 173-74).

Although this diploma was a definite asset to Zaytuna students, few of these students took advantage of this educational situation. This lack of motivation was a result of two factors; the influence of the conservative elements over these Zaytuna students and the state of apathy that existed among many of the students who only went to school to get a job or to be free from military service.

The number of students who attended Khalduniyyah in the years between 1897 and 1900 was small when compared to the approximately 900 students who attended Zaytuna during this period. For instance in 1897 at the beginning of Khalduniyyah, there were 71 students. In the year that the diploma was established, there were only 75. By 1900 there were 87 students who attended Khalduniyyah(La Khaldounia, p. 19).These statistics seem to indicate that the diploma had no significant effect on influencing the Zaytuna students to attend Khalduniyyah and to learn about the various courses which were taught as supplements to those at Zaytuna. This lack of attendance at Khalduniyyah by Zaytuna students seems to indicate that the French were again thwarted in their attempts to motivate the Zaytuna students to study the various secular subjects. 

The Khalduniyyah library

The Khalduniyyah library grew with the years following the establishment of Khalduniyyah. By 1905 the library had accumulated about 690 volumes which included 332 in French and 358 in Arabic (La Khaldounia, p. 22). This nearly equal number of French and Arabic works illustrates the almost equal emphasis which was placed on these sources in Khalduniyyah. It also demonstrates the extent to which these students were being exposed to ideas outside the Arab culture. With this exposure Khalduniyyah students became aware of history, geography, and various "modern sciences." The introduction to history was one of the factors which motivated these students to learn more about the history of their own country. This desire added to the growing feeling of nationalism in these students and impressed them that these courses should be more extensively taught at Zaytuna.  

The effect of Khalduniyyah on Zaytuna 

The Khalduniyyah played a significant role in bringing about reform at Zaytuna. Its main contribution was making the Zaytuna students aware of the subjects which weren't taught at Zaytuna and stimulating a desire in these students to push for reforms which would bring about Zaytuna's adoption of modern science courses. 

The role that Khalduniyyah played in bringing about reform was described by Camille Fidele in an article in Le Tunisien, a Young Tunisian newspaper; the Young Tunisians were young men who desired the modernization of the "traditional Islamic society" (Brown, 1962, pp. 41-42). In Fidel's article he described one of reasons the Zaytuna students went on strike in 1910 was to demand that science be taught to Zaytuna students at Khalduniyyah. He further stated that by 1908 the population of Khalduniyyah had grown to 463 (412 of these were from Tunis). This figure represented approximately 50% of the students at Zaytuna. Thus by 1902 a great number of Zaytuna students, rather than the previous small representation, were getting exposed to and interested in the incorporation of modern sciences at Zaytuna. For this reason when the students of Zaytuna did go on strike for reform in 1910, about 700 to 800 students demonstrated in support of the cause of the strike (Fidele, Le Tunisien, 1911). 

Reform Efforts Affecting Zaytuna 

The later part of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century were important periods for more reform movements and efforts affecting Zaytuna. The French tried to reform Zaytuna by establishing a reform commission in 1898. Shaykh Muhammad Abduh of Al-Azhar came to Tunis and presented his progressive ideas. There were attacks and pressures for change from the "Young Tunisians" through such newspapers as La Tunisien and El Hadira. The Zaytuna students formed an organization which was aimed at introducing reform to Zaytuna. At this time Zaytuna was also receiving strong pressure from its own professors to bring about reform. Furthermore in 1910 the Zaytuna students who were disappointed in the quality of education at Zaytuna initiated a strike to force government officials to introduce reform of this traditional center of Islamic studies. All of these reform efforts will be discussed in the following section of this dissertation. 

Reform commission of 1898 

As a result of the lack of teachers at Zaytuna to fully carry out their duties and as a result of the desire of the French authorities that modern science courses be introduced at Zaytuna, a reform commission was advocated by Machuel who "demanded that the Prime Minister," Bu Attur, create a council to study the lack of modern science courses at Zaytuna. The council was composed of the Shaykh al-Islam, the inspectors of education, and seven Zaytuna professors (Fidele, Le Tunisien, 1911). 

When the council first met on May 10, 1898, it was proposed that Zaytuna be separated from the Director of Education and be replaced under the direction of the Prime Minister (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 72). This resolution formally stated what was already in existence. Since the time that Zaytuna had been placed under the Director of Education, there was little or no cooperation between the French Director who represented the "infidels" and the Zaytuna University, which was an institution of higher education for "fidels." It was also reemphasized at this meeting that no reform or improvement could be incorporated without the consent of the leaders of the Mosque (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 102). De Montety notes that after this time, "Zaytuna was able to live calm and dignified, folded within itself. . .” (De Montety, 1951, No. 13 p. 27). 

Muhammad al-Aziz Bu Attur opened the first meeting of the reform council with a praise for the instruction at Zaytuna and a note that it could be improved by the inclusion of "modern sciences." After this opening speech, Bu Attur "yielded to Machuel," who emphasized that his desire was "to strengthen traditional Islamic education." He further proposed that students of Zaytuna be required to take examinations before passing from one degree to another and suggested that "modern subjects" be incorporated in the curriculum of Zaytuna. He recommended that the rote memory method be replaced by more modern teaching methods. In addition to this he suggested that the old texts be replaced by "new compositions written especially for the subject." This meeting was adjourned with the Shaykhs stating that they would consider Machuel's proposals. 

At the second meeting which took place on May 18, 1898, the Shaykhs rejected Machuel's proposals dealing with the inclusion of "modern sciences"; yet they made plans to continue discussion on the issue. 

On June 14, 1898 the final session of the planning committee was held. After many resolutions were proposed and rejected, the proposal of Mohammad Bairam, who at this time was Shaykh al-Islam, was accepted. This resolution stated that there should be an hour long devotion held daily for Zaytuna students. During this time the students who desired to participate could take classes in geography, history, and arithmetic. The acceptance of this resolution manifested a victory for the conservative branch of the council Green, 1973, pp. 199-205). This instance illustrates some of the obstacles which had to be faced every time that reform was suggested for Zaytuna. Some of the same obstacles of conservatism that Machuel faced in 1898 in reforming Zaytuna were also encountered by at-Tahir Ibn Ashur in 1932 when he attempted to introduce reforms while he was rector of the Zaytuna University. 

The effect this council had in introducing modern subjects to the curriculum of Zaytuna is illustrated in an 1899 report on the Regency by Versini. Versini indicated that Zaytuna students still had to attend Khalduniyyah to obtain information not taught at Zaytuna. These subjects included arithmetic, geometry, algebra, physics, chemistry, geography, French, and others. From this report it appears that the resolution to have voluntary classes in the subjects of history, geography, and arithmetic was not fully followed. Versini also reported that the old methods were still being followed, and the old texts were still being used (Versine, 1899, pp. 437-63). Thus the council of 1898 doesn't seem to have caused any effective reforms of Zaytuna; rather it was merely a gathering of some French officials and Zaytuna teachers and officials who discussed the need for improvement at Zaytuna and how this could be accomplished.  

First and second visit of Muhammed Abduh 

Pressure was placed on Zaytuna to reform during the last part of the 19th and early part of the 20thn centuries because of the followers of Shaykh Muhammad Abduh. Shaykh Abduh was a noted professor-reformist from Al-Azhar in Cairo who visited Tunisia in 1884 and 1903. There is a theory that sometime before Abduh came to Tunis, he may have exchanged ideas with Khayr Ad-Din and developed a familiarity with the reform efforts in Tunis. The possibility that Khayr Ad-Din and Abduh met is discussed in an article by Sami Hanna and George Gardner. In this article Hanna and Gardner make note that although the evidence is not conclusive, it is likely that Abduh and Khayr Ad-Din met in Turkey and that Khayr Ad-Din contributed to the association of al-curwah al-wathqa (a secret association organized by Al-Afghani and Abduh). It is also mentioned in this article that Abduh probably read Khayr Ad-Din's book Aqwam al-masalik (Hanna and Gardner, 1974, pp. 21-51). Aqwam al-masalik is discussed in Chapter 3 of this dissertation. The possibility that Abduh had interaction with Khayr Ad-Din and that some of Abduh's ideas resulted from this interaction has not fully been proven; but there is enough evidence to suggest that such a meeting or perhaps an exchange of ideas did take place between these two men. 

Another Tunisian influence which might have affected Abduh was Ibn Khaldun. Though Ibn Khaldun wrote in the 14th century, Olivier Carre points out that the writing styles of Abduh and Ibn Khaldun had similarities and that Al-Afghani and Abduh had most likely read Ibn Khaldun's work,  muqaddimah (Carre, 1970, pp. 301-16). Thus it appears that Abduh may have been influenced in his reform ideas by two Tunisians, Ibn Khaldun of the 14th century and Khayr Ad-Din of the 19th century. 

First visit of Abduh 

In 1884 Shaykh Abduh visited Tunis for the first time. This visit seemed to be for encouraging the Muslims in Tunisia to keep themselves true to Islam and not become naturalized citizens of France and for presenting reformist ideas in a way which wouldn't offend the French. During this visit Abduh didn't try to persuade the people at Zaytuna to reform this Islamic institution, but he made important connections with various reformist groups in the city (Chenoufi, 1968, p. 65). By this means a "firm relationship" was established between one of the professors at Al-Azhar and some of the reformists at Zaytuna (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p.57). These reformist groups now had a strong support for their ideas from one of the noted Shaykhs. To have such support from someone as noted as Abduh, enhanced the importance which was placed on their ideas. Consequently the desire of Abduh's Tunisian followers to initiate reform at Zaytuna increased. 

Another effect of Abduh's visit to Tunis was the creation of various Tunisian newspapers and journals. Such publications as Al-Hadira, which reported messages of the reformists Khayr Ad-Din and Qabadu, and Az-Zuhra, which was founded by Snadli in 1890, are two examples of publications established by Abduh's followers (Chenoufi, 1968, pp. 69-70). 

Abduh's second visit 

The Shaykh Abduh arrived for the second time in Tunis on September 9, 1903. On September 12, only a few days after this arrival, he paid a visit to Zaytuna and was impressed with the organization of the library; he further expressed his desire to copy some of the library's rare manuscripts (Chenoufi, 1968, pp. 76-77).This library had made much progress since its foundation. At the time of Abduh's visit, it had over 6,882 works and nearly all of these were manuscripts (Roy, Tunis, 1900). 

Abduh's visit “deeply affected” the thinking of some of the Ulama and people who desired reform in Tunisia. He was welcomed from the beginning—partly out of interest in his ideas and partly out of respect for his position at Al-Azhar—by people of power and those in the scholastic areas. He mentioned to those he met that now was the time to examine the present Islamic way of thinking and to reform the problem areas in education (al-Fidil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 75). 

On September 20, 1903 Abduh assisted in some of the courses at Zaytuna. Furthermore he talked with some of the professors and seemed impressed by the quality of education at Zaytuna. It was later stated in al Manar, a journal published in Cairo, whose articles encouraged social change: 

Our teacher Abduh . . . said that the Tunisians were employed

well ahead of us [Egyptians] to reform their education to such

a  point  that  the  education  dispensed at the Zaytuna is well

superior to that of Al-Azhar (Chenoufi,1968, p. 78). 

In a discussion with Shaykh at-Tahir Ibn Ashur, Abduh inquired about the teaching methods at Zaytuna and the manuals used. After the discussion, he commented to Shaykh Ashur that the education at Zaytuna was superior to that of Al-Azhar. One of his reasons for this statement was that he believed the education at Zaytuna was enriched by "the creation of Khalduniyyah (Chenoufi,1968, p.79).” 

Four days before his departure, Abduh spoke at Khalduniyyah. Those who came to hear him listened carefully to the ideas from this "leader of the Egyptian movement." Abduh criticized the depression of reform ideas and "provoked" anger from the conservatives who were listening to him Ibn Ashur, 1967, pp. 248-49). In his criticism Abduh stated that it was the time "to expel all spirit of quietism (tawakkul)" under the pretext of submission to God. In addition to this point, Abduh asked for an acquisition of both religious and secular knowledge and stressed that this should be accomplished by the "most direct and the most practical" means (Chenoufi, 1968, p.80). 

Many Tunisians agreed with and supported Abduh's ideas. Many students at Zaytuna demonstrated their respect for Abduh after his death in 1905 by memorizing a poem written in his honor (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 80)." Some people even commented that "the source of the education movement in Tunisia is al-Shaykh Muhammad Abduh and some Egyptian magazines which encouraged the Muslims to acquire the sciences of both heaven and earth (Hanna, 1972, p.96)" 

With regard to Zaytuna, no reform decree immediately followed Abduh's visit; but it can be seen from the scholars like at-tahir Ibn Ashur, who followed Abduh's ideas, and the memorization of a poem in Abduh's honor by Zaytuna's students, that he had an important influence on some of those who were associated with Zaytuna and who were influential in bringing reform to Zaytuna.

It is interesting to note, though no direct relationship can be made, that the number of students attending courses at Khalduniyyah increased in the years following Abduh's visit. Since the creation of Khalduniyyah in 1897, there had never been more than 9 new students added each year to the existing enrollment. For instance, in 1897 the number at Khalduniyyah was 71. Four students were added to this population in 1898 giving a total of 75 students. The attendance increased by 5 in 1899; 7 in 1900; 8 in 1901; 9 in 1902; 7 in 1903; and by the time Abduh made his second visit, there were 115 students at Khalduniyyah. Then in 1904, a year after his visit, the attendance increased by 15. Two years after this in 1905, it increased by 26.

Thus the enrollment changed from 156 to 169 at that time (La Khaldounia, p. 19). This figure doesn't include the students who occasionally attended some of the conferences at Khalduniyyah. It is very interesting to note that the enrollment of Khalduniyyah, the school which taught the subjects Abduh emphasized increased following his visit. 

Taha Hussayn, who years following his schooling at Al-Azhar, became a noted scholar and acting Under-Secretary of State for Education in Egypt, gave an account of his school days at Al-Azhar and the effect that Abduh had on the students there. To some extent Abduh had this same influence on the Muslim students who listened to him during his visits to Tunis. Hussayn states: 

These young men [students of Al-Azhar and many students of Abduh] were extremely critical of the books and methods of teaching used at the Azhar. In this they followed the opinions of the Imam [Abduh] who when they attended his lectures or visited him at his home used to give them the titles of valuable books on grammar, rhetoric, theology, and even literature. These books, despite their importance, were disdained by the Shaykhs, because they had never read them; perhaps, too, their repugnance was increased by the very fact of the Imam's approval. However there were some of the more competent Shaykhs who were eager to follow in the Imam's footsteps, and who also recommended important books which were not at the Azhar, simply because they never had been. No sooner did our friends [students at Al-Azhar] catch the title of a book of this kind, than they rushed off to buy it, if they had the means. . . Otherwise they would borrow the book from the Azhar library, and scan it eagerly before making arrangements to read it together and to help each other in understanding it. In doing this they were inspired by a sincere affection for the Imam and a genuine desire to widen their knowledge (Taha Husayn, 1943, p. 70). 

From this account by Hussayn, it can be observed that Abduh truly motivated students with a desire to expand their knowledge about the world around them. As a result of Abduh's speeches in Tunis and his teaching at Al-Azhar, students in Islamic studies were motivated to learn more about the "modern sciences." They wanted to read the books which had been suggested by Abduh, but rejected by many other professors at the Grand Mosques in both Cairo and Tunis. Although Abduh, his followers, and others were reading books which expanded their knowledge about the world around them, there were many professors who labeled these works as faith destroyers. As Abduh's followers increased their knowledge of modern science, they seemed motivated to seek the incorporation of modern science subjects in Zaytuna*s curriculum. 

jamiyyat talamidh jamic az-zaytuna 

In 1907 a group of Zaytuna students who were inspired by the jamaiyyat qudama' al-madrase as-sadaqiya (the Sadiqiyyah Alumni), decided to form their own student association. This was called jamiyyat talamidh jamic az-zaytuna (the association of the students of the Zaytuna Mosque). One of the main goals of this association was to give direction to students who were interested in joining a united effort to stop the laziness of the Zaytuna students and teacher (Ibn Ashur, 1967, pp. 249-50). 

The existence of this association and its efforts to reform Zaytuna made the inspector Shaykhs at Zaytuna very uneasy and motivated them to persuade the Prime Minister, Muhammad al-jalluli, to help them curtail this group's actions. These Shaykhs were successful in this effort and the Prime Minister suppressed the association's activities (Ibn Ashur, 1967, pp. 252-53).This action not only illustrates the desire of the administrators to thwart reformation, but it also shows the power they had in influencing the Prime Minister to support them in their efforts. 

a-laisa as-subh bi-qarib? 

The desire for reform of Zaytuna was not only indicated by the development of student movements, but also by various writings. One such writing directed toward reform was a-laisa as-subh bi-qarib? (Isn't the Morning Near?); one could interpret this to mean, isn't it time for reform?). This book was first written by Shaykh at-Tahir Ibn Ashur in 1907. Green notes that Ibn Ashur probably wrote his ideas on reform before 1908 because many of these same ideas were quoted by Lasram in his 1908 report to the Congress of North Africa.  Some of the latter pages of the 1967 edition contain accounts as late as 1910 (Green, 1973, n. 43, p. 239). At this time at-Tahir Ibn Ashur was one of the noted professors at Zaytuna and was quickly gaining a reputation for his scholarly ability and understanding of Islam. 

It is important to study a-laisa as-subh bi-qarib? in order to better understand at-Tahir Ibn Ashur, who became the first Rector of Zaytuna in 1932, and to better understand the feelings of a Zaytuna professor who desired reform. at-Tahir Ibn Ashur began his book with a chapter on the principle of reform, "Why We Work for the Improvement of Education." In this chapter he stated that the desire of the people in this world is to be happy and to overcome that which is wrong. After this opening statement, he stated that there is something definitely wrong with the educational system. He commented that there is a need for science and the exactness that it brings. He mentioned that in the conservative sections of Tunis there wasn't an emphasis on science; rather in these sections, the emphasis of education is on fulfilling the pilgrimage and developing morality. In reply to this, at-Tahir Ibn Ashur stated that there was a need for more than this in the modern world. He noted that knowledge increased with the passing of time producing more knowledge which is helpful in the existence of the individual (Ibn Ashur, 1967, pp. 1-9). 

In the later part of at-Tahir Ibn Ashur's book, he stated that there was a definite difference between the 20th century and the Middle Ages. He cautioned the people, "Don't compel your children to adopt your morals because this new generation is created for a new era (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 115)." By paraphrasing this statement and applying it to education, one could say that he was telling the people that the education of the past should be different than the education of the present, because the present had knowledge and inventions different than previous ages. 

In his book, Ibn Ashur described the causes for the decline of education in Tunisia and at Zaytuna. The laxity of the students, teachers, and inspectors were some of these weakening influences. He stated that the backwardness" of education results from the lack of good teachers, the lack of excellent sources and the lack of a general policy for education (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 116). 

He further itemized the ills of education and their causes. He described the first as being the lack of adequate supervision (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 118).The nizara (supervisors) often failed in their inspection duties and this led to the lazy approach of the teachers. Secondly Ibn Ashur criticized the poor system used at Zaytuna in which every student and teacher followed his own way of teaching and learning. Education was not united (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 120). Thirdly there was a lack of freedom of criticism used in the sciences (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 125). Fourthly the sources used were poor (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 127). Fifthly the students were poorly trained. Even the students at Zaytuna couldn't speak fluent Classical Arabic. This according to Ibn Ashur, was partly a result of the teachers' lack of a real knowledge of Classical Arabic, the means of instruction at Zaytuna. Sixthly there was no physical education program which would help strengthen both mind and body. Seventhly there was a diversity of knowledge among the students. Some of the students didn't even know how to read or write simply because they became accustomed to memorization. This resulted in both poor graduates (Ibn Ashur, 1967, pp. 129-30). Eighthly the lessons of the mutawwaa (volunteer teachers) were given freely and according to the wishes of the mutawwaa. These teachers were not obliged to come every day because they were unpaid. Yet it was this group which taught most of the classes, and they couldn't be rejected without causing the collapse of the educational system. Ibn Ashur suggested that regular teachers from among the mutawwaa be paid (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 131). Ninthly many students desired a degree more than gaining knowledge (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 134). These are some of the main reasons given by at-Tahir Ibn Ashur for the decline of Islamic education. at-Tahir Ibn Ashur for the decline of Islamic education. at-Tahir Ibn Ashur wanted to have these weaknesses improved in order to return Islamic education to its state of excellence. 

Ibn Ashur asked for various reforms which he felt would improve education. One of the main things he was concerned about was the unity of education. At that time teachers were following their own ways of teaching; authors were publishing without supervision; and education in general was lacking unity. He mentioned that if education didn't become united, the government should bring it about. Disunity, according to Ibn Ashur, was harmful to the customs and morals of the country because in time of disunity, the state goes into a state of decay. He further commented that without unity, the individual or group developed their own mode of conduct. Ibn Ashur suggested four possible ways to achieve better control of education: (1) Education should be compulsory; (2) A schedule should be made for teachers to attend classes; (3) A place should be assigned for a school; and (4) There should be a division of the students among the teachers according to the students' and teachers' field of study (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 120).

Ibn Ashur further emphasized that the government should take the role of improving education. He stated that the government officials should enforce compulsory education when they discovered that education wasn't going the right direction (Ibn Ashur, 1967, pp. 120-21). This statement urging governmental control was a revolutionary statement for someone holding the occupation of Ibn Ashur, a professor at Zaytuna. Zaytuna teachers usually disliked the increase of government involvement as noted by the reaction against the placing of Zaytuna under Machuel, the Director of Education. However Ibn Ashur seemed more concerned about producing reform than the method used to achieve reform. 

Concerning government involvement with education, Ibn Ashur stated, "I believe that the government should direct its attention toward education and make it public and compulsory." He further stated that the government should supervise the education and create schools when they were needed. In addition to this, he stated that one shouldn't be permitted to attend Zaytuna until he had attended a primary school; and if one hadn't attended a primary school, the government should create a special class session which would prepare one for attendance at Zaytuna (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 121). These statements illustrate Ibn Ashur's desire to use the government to produce necessary reform. His suggestions of implementing adult education and establishing requirements for one who desires to enter an Islamic institution of higher education, demonstrates that he was among men like Ibn Khaldun and Shaykh Abduh who were ahead of their time in terms of their thinking on the methods and procedures of education at Islamic institutions. Despite Ibn Ashur's arguments for reform, little change and no immediate reform decree was introduced at Zaytuna. 

Requests for reform from El Hadira 

In the newspaper El Hadira (which was one of the mouthpieces for the Young Tunisians, a reformist group), there were various articles written asking for reform at Zaytuna. In the October 29, 1907 issue of this paper, various reform steps were presented. Some of these requests were as follows: (1) Improve the method of instruction; (2) Improve the textbooks used; (3) Have regular teachers for all the classes; and (4) Improve the selection of teachers. The article further suggested the following method of improving the teaching method; (1) Students should be given information gradually; (2) Students should be divided into three groups and not permitted to move from one group to the next until they have passed an examination; (3) The student's abilities should be taken into consideration; and (4) Teachers should use examples to better help the students understand the points presented. The majority of these requests could have been met if the Zaytuna officials had fully followed another request of this article in El Hadira; that is, that Zaytuna officials should observe the Decree of December 26, 1875 (al-Hadira, "ad-dacwa ila islah at-tacallm bi jamic az-zaytuna at-triqa al-muthla," 1907). 

The congresses of 1906 and 1908 

In 1906 and 1908 the French conducted congresses to discuss the affairs of its possessions or protectorates in North Africa. It was in the congresses of 1906 and 1908 that Muhammad Lasram gave reports on the education in Tunisia. The report to the congress of 1906 was general in scope, but the report to the congress of 1908 specifically covered the affairs at Zaytuna and Khalduniyyah. 

Congress of 1906: In 1906 Muhammad Lasram gave a report to the "Congres de Marseille." In this report Lasram mentioned the problems that Tunisians who had a secondary and superior education—which would include Zaytuna graduates—were having a hard time finding a public job.To solve this problem, Lasram asked that young Tunisians who had completed a secondary or a superior education be assured a job in public service (Lasram, 1906, I pp. 39-41). Though the approval of this proposal was important to solve the job problem of Tunisian youth, it seems to have met with little support. 

Congress of 1908: Two years later in 1908, the "Congres de 1' Afrique du Nord" was held in Paris. At this time education was an important point of discussion. Again Muhammad Lasram (then President of Khalduniyyah), gave two reports—one on Zaytuaa and the other on Khalduniyyah. Sadok Zmerli gave a report on education for women, and Rene Millet gave a report which illustrated the compatibility of Islam with science. In this later report, Millet supported Khalduniyyah's scientific education and mentioned that such an education didn't conflict with Islam, to Zaytuna students (Millet, 1908, pp. 32-34). 

In Lasram's report on Zaytuna, he presented an overall picture of the past, present, and his ideas on the future of Zaytuna (many of these points have already been discussed). In this report Lasram made strong statements against the persistence of Zaytuna to stay away from the non-religious subjects. He stated that the "disentangling of this program from those who are foreign to the true religious science, has extremely contributed to the decadence of the Muslim World." In further commenting on the decay of the education at Zaytuna, Lasram added four more reasons to those already presented by at-Tahir Ibn Ashur: (1) lack of hygiene; (2) disorder during class; (3) the absence of good surveillance concerning the application of regulations; and (4) the tendency of students to be fully occupied with their performance on the examinations, rather than on the substance of the information being given in the lectures. 

In Lasram's closing remarks, he proposed two major suggestions; (1) the education at Zaytuna should be maintained for the preparation of religious magistrates; and (2) Khalduniyyah should be enlarged in order to form a modern Muslim University (Lasram, “L’Enseignement Superieur,” 1908, pp.144-73); although Zaytuna was recognized as a university by many, it appears that Lasram wanted a university which had courses in both secular and religious areas. These proposals were only partially fulfilled. Zaytuna continued to prepare religious magistrates, but Khalduniyyah made no great progress toward the realization of Lasram's conviction that a Muslim University be created which would include more than just the Islamic sciences. 

In Lasram's report on Khalduniyyah, he mainly gave the information which has already been mentioned in this dissertation. In presenting this report on Khalduniyyah, Lasram emphasized the important role of Khalduniyyah in introducing Zaytuna students to the "modern sciences (Lasram, “Khaldounia,” 1908, pp.173-80)." 

In Sadok Zmerli's report on women's education, he stated that women were not permitted to study at Zaytuna (Zmerli, 1908, II pp. 283-90). This seemed to be a general principle in Muslim education at this period of time. It wasn't until 1908—though the French had had earlier schools for girls—that Charlety, the Director General of Education who replaced Machuel, increased the number of schools for girls in Tunisia. This education introduced by Charlety was not only practical, but it also included some general instruction (Chatelain, 1937, pp. 26-27). This increase in schools for women in Tunisia could have been influenced by or a result of Zmerli's report. 

Student Strike of 1910 

Zaytuna was again in the spotlight in 1910. The students seem to have arrived at the point where they wanted reform. They had read in the Tunisian newspapers about the student strike at Al-Azhar in Cairo and they, the students of Zaytuna, felt that reform could be achieved at Zaytuna by a similar action (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 113). 

On March 11, 1910 the student association called a meeting at Zaytuna to discuss improvements in education and methods of obtaining it. About 700 students attended this meeting (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 113). Le Tunisien (March 24, 1910) stated that there were 800 students present at that meeting (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 113). Various speeches were given and as a result of this meeting, the students demanded that the government establish a commission to examine and improve the program of education and the teaching methods at Zaytuna (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 113). 

In addition to the request for a commission, the students listed specific areas they wanted improved. The first of these dealt with the conduct of the professors. The students demanded that the professors be required to give their lectures at the right time and at the right place. This wasn't the first occasion that the negligence of some of the professors was revealed. The lack of their attendance had been mentioned and correction attempts had been made by various decrees since the "Charter" for the University was established by Ahmed Bey in 1842. These decrees usually emphasized that an absent professor would lose his salary for the time he was absent. This approach, as illustrated by the demand of the Zaytuna students in 1910, hadn't been successful in accomplishing its objective. Thus the students asked for improved methods of regulating the conduct of the professors in relation to their class attendance. 

The second demand was that the number of history and geography classes taught at the Grand Mosque be increased. These classes were the most popular at Khalduniyyah, but they only had a small emphasis at Zaytuna (Khairallah, 1910, III pp. 23-24). The desire to expand this emphasis of study resulted from the increased feelings of nationalism (Brown, 1962, pp. 41-77) which were developing in Tunisia and the effect of Khalduniyyah on the Zaytuna students. By including these courses, all the students in Zaytuna would be able to better understand the factors which had formed their country, increase their national pride, and learn about the countries which surround Tunisia. In addition to having an increased emphasis on these subjects, the students demanded that these two subjects be included on their examinations. 

Thirdly the students requested that they be permitted to take the test of the tatwaa after three years rather than the presently required seven years (Khairallah, 1938, III pp. 23-24). This request resulted from a ruling of the nizara in 1910. This ruling stated that a student needed to have "concluded seven years" of studies before being admitted for the imtihan at-tatwla (the examination of the Zaytuna diploma). This seven years didn't begin until the student had signed his name on the register of the inspectors (at-Tahir Ibn Ashur, 1967, pp. 255-56), which signified his official registration on the Zaytuna rolls.

Fourthly the students desired to be automatically exempted from taxes and military service (Khairallah, 1938, III p. 24). The required test that Zaytuna students had to take before becoming exempted was set up in 1890. Because this examination was so difficult, few Zaytuna students ever passed it. With the passing of years, fewer students applied to take this rigid examination and hence they were kept available for military service (La Tunisie, 1896, II pp. 215-16). 

The fifth demand was for the improvement of living accommodations (Khairallah, 1938, III p. 24). As previously mentioned, these accommodations (madrasas) were usually poorly lighted and ventilated, in addition to this, the sanitary conditions were usually substandard. 

The government hurried to act on these demands. On March 15, 1910 it announced that there would be a commission organized to investigate the education at Zaytuna. This action was considered a "splendid victory" by both the newspapers and the students (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 114). The commission was composed of Fleury, "secretaire general adjoint du Gouvernement," six professors of the Grand Mosque, two delegates of the government, the Khairallah, a Young Tunisian of note in Tunisia. This commission, which had its first meeting on April 6, 1910 (al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 115), was directed to examine and improve the conditions at Zaytuna (Khairallah, 1938, III p. 24). 

The reform commission was slow to both pass on information concerning their activities and to introduce reforms so the students called another meeting on April 15, 1910 in order to discuss the situation. At this meeting the students scheduled a strike to start the following day(al-Fadil Ibn Ashur, 1972, p. 115). 

On April 16 the students boycotted their classes. They went through the city and congregated in front of the Par al-Bey (the Bey's residence). The delegation was received by the "Ministre de la Plume (Khairallah, 1938, III pp. 23-29)," a high Muslim dignitary who served as a replacement for an absent or impeached Prime Ministe (Fitoussi, 1931, I  pp. 192-93). The "Ministre de la Plume" requested that the students return to their courses and wait for the decision of the commission. 

During this audience with the Minister, two of the strikers were arrested by the Shaykh of the Medina under 1' inculpation d' agitation (the charge of disturbing the peace). All the students then went to the Shaykh of the Medina and demanded la remise en liberte immediate de leur comaurades (the immediate release of their brothers). When this demand was met, the demonstrators were satisfied and dispersed. 

The students met again the following day at the University. They closed the doors of the mosque and refused to exit. 

The following Monday in the afternoon, Ali Bash-Hamba (who was editor of L'Tunisien), Zaouche, and Guellaty (men of importance in the ranks of the Young Tunisians), met with the students at the Grand Mosque. Bash-Hamba gave a speech which lasted two hours with periodic interruptions of the students shouting vive Bash-Hamba, vive le Tunisien (long live Bash-Hamba, long live Tunisia). He expressed his disappointment in the strike, but he congratulated the students on the calm and dignified manner they had carried out the demonstration. He further advised them that their demands might not be met immediately, but that they shouldn't stop striving for the necessary reforms. He also stated that he would make columns in the Arabic edition of Le Tunisien available to students so they could expose the problems encountered at Zaytuna. 

On April 26 the government summoned two members of the "Young Tunisian" party and told them that the government had decided to further analyze the "revendications" of the students. The government also stated that they would strive to correct the problems which required immediate action. The government officials further instructed the students to return to their classes and choose a delegation to discuss the matter with the "Ministre de la Plume." 

The next day on April 27, the students chose a delegation which was received by both the "Ministre de la Plume" and the Secretary General of the Tunisian Government. In this meeting the students agreed to end their strike. As a result of this decision, it was stated that Zaytuna would again open for course work the following Saturday; but the student delegation obtained an agreement to have Zaytuna opened the following day. 

On April 29 lectures were conducted as usual at the Grand Mosque. Nevertheless the students were anxiously awaiting the improvements promised by the government. 

Although the government seems to have made no immediate reforms of Zaytuna--reform decrees weren't issued until 1912—the students were satisfied with their action and the assumed results. To commemorate the "success" of the strike, the students held a celebration on May 13, 1910. At this gathering several speeches were given on the need for "modern science." A talk was given by Shaykh Abdel 'Aziz ath-Tha’alibi, who was representing Ali Bash Hamba while he was out of town. ath-Tha’alibi spoke on the education at Zaytuna and criticized the conservatism of many professors. He further stated, "Islam is a religion of progress and of light which always encourages the study of exact sciences." He stated that this was evidenced by the accomplishments of the Arabs in this area during the Middle Ages (Khairallah, 1938, III pp. 23-29). 

In an article dated April 28, 1910 in Le Tunisien, Bash-Hamba stated that this desire for reform by the students and the professors had been manifested for three to four years before the strike—this statement is supported by the initial writing of at-Tahir Ibn Ashur's book on reform in 1907 and the articles in El Hadira—but it was ignored by the government. It appeared to these students that the best way to bring reform to Zaytuna was not to write about it, but to take direct action. The strike was the action hopefully used to bring about improvement in the education at Zaytuna. 

In analyzing the causes of the strike, Bash-Hamba supported the notion that in addition to the situations which led to the direct demands of the students, it was a result of the introduction of "modern science" to Zaytuna students who attended Khalduniyyah—one could also include many of the Zaytuna students who attended Sadiqiyyah to the list of agitators. In addition to the part Khalduniyyah played in introducing these modern ideas, Bash-Hamba also gave credit for the strike to the publications of Cairo and Beirut (Bash-Hamba, Le Tunisien, 1910). 

Educational Developments and Zaytuna 

There were two educational events which occurred in 1911 which affected Zaytuna. Both of these events affected the job prospects for Zaytuna graduates. The first event was the establishment of "L'Ecole Superieure" and the second was the establishment of a diploma for Sadiqiyyah graduates.

"L'Ecole Superieure" 

In 1911 "L'Ecole Superieure de Langue et Litterature Arabs," a school which was established to teach Arabic to French people in Tunisia, was enlarged by the founding of a new school which went by the name of "L'Ecole Superieure." This later school had an increased curriculum. Here students were taught to translate texts of medium difficulty from Arabic to French and from French to Arabic Chatelain, 1937, p. 269. 

Through the efforts of this school, many more works were made available to help the two cultures become aware of each other’s customs and languages. Muslim students also had more sources in Arabic which explained the ideas of the Western world. However this school also introduced some problems for Tunisian students who attended Khalduniyyah and Sadiqiyyah. This school prepared more French students with translation skills. Before this time only a few French students and graduates of Sadiqiyyah, Khalduniyyah, and Zaytuna were qualified to translate. Thus there was an increasing lack of jobs for graduates of Muslim schools and this motivated these students to push for more reforms. 

Diploma of Sadiqiyyah 

The prestige of the Sadiqiyyah graduate was increased by the creation of a diploma by a decree issued on May 25, 1911 (Rapports De La Sous-Commision D’ Etudes Economiques, 1932, II p. 115). This action helped Sadiqiyyah students compete for jobs with French school graduates. Many of the jobs that these graduates desired required a diploma. While the creation of this diploma helped Sadiqiyyah graduates, it also decreased the job prospects for Zaytuna graduates who not only lacked the necessary credentials, but also lacked training in the French language. 

Summary 

During the period from 1895 to 1912 there were significant movements which sought reform of Zaytuna's educational system. At this time students, newspapers, and professors made known their reform desires. However few reforms and no major reforms were issued affecting Zaytuna's century-old teaching methods and books. 

There were three reform decrees issued during the period examined in this chapter: the Decree of April 4, 1896, the Decree of February 8, 1905, and the Decree of April 29, 1908. The Decree of 1896 dealt with the yearly examinations at Zaytuna. It specified that these examinations were to be held in May rather than in June. This change was most likely to give the students who were completing their studies at Zaytuna more time to study for the examination of tatwia (the examination for the Zaytuna diploma which was usually given in June or July). The Decree of February 8, 1905 further regulated the use of Zaytuna's library. The Decree of April 29, 1908 stated, as had the Decree of June 13, 1892, that mutawwaa needed two years of teaching experience before they could apply for the competitive examination for a vacant position as a second class professor. 

One significant step toward reform at Zaytuna occurred in 1896. In that year the Khalduniyyah school, a secondary school which introduced Zaytuna students to modern science and European languages, was established by order of the Prime Minister. After this school was established a number of Zaytuna students took advantage of the subjects offered, but in the first year only 10% of Zaytuna's student body attended Khalduniyyah's lectures. This percentage increased following Shaykh Muhammad Abduh's visit in 1903 and by 1908 about 50% of Zaytuna's student body were attending evening lectures at Khalduniyyah after attending day lectures at Zaytuna. This introduction of Zaytuna students to modern sciences was one of the factors which motivated Zaytuna students to demonstrate for reform of Zaytuna's curriculum. 

From 1895 to 1911 there were various reform efforts directed toward Zaytuna's century-old educational approach. The first of these efforts took place in 1898. At that time Machuel, the French director of education, organized a reform council to discuss the possibility of including more modern science courses in Zaytuna*s curriculum. Machuel met with little success and after several meetings, the council was dissolved. Another reform effort was launched as a result of Shaykh Muhammad Abduh's visits to Tunis in 1884 and 1903. During these visits Abduh made important connections and obtained followers for his reformist ideas; Bechir Sfar, one of the founders of Khalduniyyah, was one of Abduh's 1884 followers and at-Tahir Ibn Ashur was one of Abduh’s 1903 followers.

As a result of Shaykh at-Tahir Ibn Ashur's personal thinking on reform and some of the reformist ideas he developed following his communications with Abduh, he wrote a book entitled a laisa as-subh bi-qarib? This book presented Ibn Ashur's reasons for the decline of Islamic education and some procedures he felt would improve this decayed state. Since reform didn't come until about five years after Ibn Ashur wrote his book, it might appear that Ibn Ashur's book did little to motivate the government to action. However being that Lasram quoted some of Ibn Ashur's ideas in his 1908 report, it probably was one of the factors which motivated students and teachers to seek reform. 

In 1907 jamaiyyat tallmidh jamic az-zaytuna (the association of the students of Zaytuna Mosque) was established. This organization attempted to bring reform to Zaytuna oy uniting the Zaytuna students. However this effort met with little success because the conservative factions of Zaytuna were successful in suppressing the group's efforts with the aid of the Prime Minister, Muhammad al-jalluli. 

The early part of the 20th century was a time when both Le Tunisien and El Hadira (newspapers of the Young Tunisians) printed articles which asked for reform at Zaytuna. in addition to these reform requests, one article in El Hadira asked that Zaytuna follow the Decree of December 26, 1875. From this statement it seems that not only was Zaytuna's lack of reform failing to meet the demands of the 20th century, but it was also failing to follow the previously issued decrees. 

In 1906 and 1908 the French organized congresses to discuss the affairs of their possessions or protectorates in North Africa. In both of these congresses, Muhammad Lasram (President of Khalduniyyah School) reported on the education in Tunisia and asked the French to help solve the educational problems in Tunisia caused by the lack of employment for Tunisian graduates and the lack of reform at Zaytuna. In the closing remarks of Lasram's 1908 report, he stated that Zaytuna should continue its role as the preparer of religious magistrates, but Khalduniyyah should be formed into a modern university which offered a full range of subject matter. Following this later congress, little was done by the Protectorate government to improve the conditions at Zaytuna or Khalduniyyah; Zaytuna continued supplying religious magistrates to fill the ranks of the unemployed and Khalduniyyah made no great progress toward becoming a modern university. 

Zaytuna was in the spotlight in 1910. At this time a reform commission was organized to improve the educational system at this Islamic University and to meet the various reform demands of the Zaytuna students. However this reform commission was slow to act. Therefore, inspired by the success of the strike of Al-Azhar students in 1909, the Zaytuna students went on strike for their reform desires. After a period of negotiation, the strike came to an end and the Zaytuna students returned to their lectures. The students felt that they had obtained a victory, but it wasn't until two years later that the government issued a decree which met some, but not all, of the students' demands. 

There were two educational events in 1911 which affected the job prospects of Zaytuna graduates. The first event was the establishment of "L'Ecole Superieure" and the second event was the creation of the Sadiqiyyah diploma. These two events made it harder for a Zaytuna graduate to find a job in an already limited market because the various non-religious employments, which had previously been given to Zaytuna graduates, were increasingly being given to non-Zaytuna graduates who had skills in Arabic and French and a general knowledge in several areas of learning.

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