Chapter 7
THE POST WORLD WAR I PERIOD
The
period following World War I was one of changes for Tunisia and Zaytuna. During
this period Zaytuna had to rely more upon governmental financial support
because the war had decreased the funds (habus) Zaytuna had maintained itself
on for centuries. At this time Zaytuna graduates were having greater difficulty
getting jobs because of their lack of academic and language preparation for
jobs in developing Tunisia. This poor job outlook led these Zaytuna students to
request more reforms. However these requests were met with little success. In the
1920's Zaytuna had to add an annex to take care of its expanding population.
All of these issues and problems are discussed in this chapter.
Zaytuna During The Early Post-War Period
In a
1918 report to the Institute of Carthage, Noel (a respected French professor in
Tunis) presented some general facts about Zaytuna. In this
report Noel stated that the students led a very regulated life. They
were awakened at dawn. They performed their morning prayers and sometimes
received lectures at the mosque of the madrasa before they went to lectures at
Zaytuna. For expenses these students received about 1.80 francs to 6 francs per
month. After the students performed their morning prayers, they went to the
mosque, circled their professors, and began to learn the lessons by heart.
At noon
the students often returned to the madrasa for lunch. After lunch they went
back to Zaytuna to continue their lessons. In the evening the students returned
to the madrasa for dinner, to review their lessons with other students, and, if
they were studious, to attend lectures at Khalduniyyah (Noel, 1919, pp. 127-29).
The
student population at Zaytuna was on the increase in the 1920's. This population
had risen from 800 or 900 in 1908, to 1,400 in 1914 and to 2,000 in 1927 (L’Afrique
Francaise, 1927, pp. 245-47). However Noel notes that only 1/5 of the students
at Zaytuna in 1918 were from the city of Tunis (Noel, 1919, p. 129). This
representation from Tunis was low because many of the children of magistrates and
the affluent classes, which included children of Ulama, were beings ent to
Sadiqiyyah College. This lack of jobs for Zaytuna graduates was one of the
causes for this action. Although Zaytuna was increasing in population during
the 1920's, most of its population was from the interior of Tunisia and the
poorer sections of the country. For centuries Zaytuna had been a means of
increasing ones social standing, but this position was on the decrease.
Noel
notes that in 1918 the students at Zaytuna were still not taking notes in their
lectures. Rather than take notes they would follow the professor in their
textbooks and read the various explanations. Then they would attempt to commit
these lessons to memory (Noel, 1919, pp. 129-33). Thus memory still held
an important role in the education of these students.
The
subjects taught at Zaytuna following World War I were usually religious or
judicial in nature. These areas coupled with Arabic held the interlinking
positions in the Islamic educational approach of this institution. Table 8
compares the number of courses taught In the various areas in 1918 with the
similar courses taught in 1875 and 1906. This table illustrates that there was
an increase in the number of religious and judicial science courses offered at
Zaytuna in 1906; but in 1918 when the number of judicial science courses was
maintained, the number of religious science courses decreased. This maintained
emphasis on judicial sciences, but decrease in religious sciences was probably
a result of available jobs for Zaytuna graduates. These job openings most
likely required a stronger judicial background than a religious science
background.
Table 8
Comparison of 1875, 1906, and 1918 Courses
(Machuel, 1897, p. 393; Loth, 1907, pp. 78-79; Noel, 1919, pp. 487-88)
_______________________________________________________________
Courses 1875
1906 1918
_______________________________________________________________
Religious Sciences 86 134 95
Reciting
the Qur'an 64 22 65
Theology 29 30 30
Judicial Science 131 187 187
Grammar 150 173 137
Rhetoric, Eloquence, and Logic 61 73 73
_______________________________________________________________
Total 521 619 587
_______________________________________________________________
In 1918
according to Noel, there were 30 professors of the first class, 12 of the
second class, and 67 auxiliary professors (Noel, 1919, pp. 129-30). These
figures were less than those stipulated in the Decree of 1912 (this decree
specified that the number of first class professors was to be 31 and the number
of second class professors was to be 13). There are two probable reasons for
this lack of compliance. One reason was that the even number of 30 and 12 made
it possible for a balance to exist between those professors representing the
Hanafite legal rite and those representing the Malikite legal rite. The second
reason may have been that not enough teachers were prepared for the test or had
not met the other qualifications for becoming a first or second class
professor. Although a report in 1895 stated that there were 31 first class professors
and 13 second class professors, the total of 30 first class professors and 12
second class professors was generally adhered to during the period covered in
this dissertation.
Concerning
the methods of education, Noel stated that the teachers first explained the
original work, then presented a commentary on it, and finally, but not always,
gave an explanation of the commentary. Although this method was in accordance
with the stipulations of the Decree of 1912, it was weak in producing students
who had more than a memorized oratory of works, commentaries, and explanations of
commentaries. These students usually lacked a full understanding of the points
they had memorized (Noel, 1919, pp. 127-33).
When
Noel gave his report, he mentioned that the French Protectorate had done little
to improve the conditions at Zaytuna. He asked—as had at-Tahir Ibn Ashur—that
the government take steps to improve the century-old teaching methods at
Zaytuna. Noel noted that if the government would take actions to improve these
methods, it would most likely have the support of the Zaytuna students.
Noel
commented that in 1918 the student support for Khalduniyyah was on the
decrease. Thus there was a need for reform of the education at Zaytuna so that
the Zaytuna students could continue to be exposed to modern sciences and
foreign languages (Noel, 1919, pp. 127-33).
In the
1920's the first objective of Zaytuna was the same as it had been for
centuries. It was "to make a student a good theologian." This effort
was often at the expense of the student learning information concerning the world
around him and resulted in what some have . . .
considered the decline of the quality of education at Zaytuna. In commenting
on this decline, Ferid Ghazi in his article, "le Milieu Zitounien de 1920
a 1933 et la formation d'Abu-1-Qacim ach-chubbi [Ash-Shabbi], poete tunisien
(1909-1934)," listed the works studied at Zaytuna and then asked,
"Where were they then, the grand thinkers of Muslim theology? The
an-Nazzam, the Allaf, and likewise the Ashaari, are omitted ["from the
works studied at Zaytuna?]. One only alludes to them from a distance and across
some commentaries" which misrepresents them (Ghazi, 1959, No. 28 p. 450).
Ghazi further stated, "this was then an education without core . . .,
a pale reflection of that which had been the Islamic education during the
centuries of activity of the thinkers." It was Ghazi's belief that
"these works in general were either bad drafts (there style reflected the
rhyming prose of the most bad style. . .) or bad commentaries." This lack
of intellectualism in the works studied at Zaytuna during this period continued
to develop an intellectual crisis at Zaytuna (Ghazi, 1959, No. 28 pp. 4537-74).
When
Ash-Shabbi, a Tunisian poet, left Zaytuna in the 1920's, he attempted to
produce thoughts on reform through his writing. One poem which brought him
recognition presented the idea that if people desire a life of progress and
freedom, God must permit it. This thought caused a great reaction from the
conservative factions of Tunisia for it placed man in a position of forcing God
to do something, rather than emphasizing the traditional belief that God is the
one who destines man. This poem also introduced the idea that reform can be brought
about by man's works. As man works for reform as a result of his desire, God
will bless him with that which he deserves. The thoughts of Ash-Shabbi are just
one example of the reformist ideas which were growing among Zaytuna students in
the 1920's and 1930's.
Non-educational problems facing Zaytuna
In
addition to the weaknesses manifested in the traditional educational approach
at Zaytuna, there were also other problems which affected Zaytuna or the
students at Zaytuna. The first of these problems dealt with the lack of jobs
for Zaytuna students (this lack is analyzed at this point). The second problem
was the lack of funds for Zaytuna as a result of such funds being depleted
during World War I. The third problem dealt with the poor living conditions the
students had to face at the madrasas. All of these problems will be discussed
at this point.
Job problems: The lack of jobs for
Zaytuna students during the 1920's resulted from many factors. First of all the
judicial branch of Tunisia had been changed since the 19fch century. This
change made it possible for non-Tunisians to be tried outside the religious
courts. Furthermore many of the Tunisians were having their cases tried before the
non-religious courts because of the nature of the crimes they had committed.
This change in the judicial procedures in Tunisia reduced the need for a great
number of religious magistrates. Secondly after the establishment of the
Protectorate, the need arose in the government of Tunisia for people who had
more than a Zaytuna education. The Protectorate needed employees who not only
knew Arabic, but who also knew French. Thirdly the number of Zaytuna students
had more than doubled from 1881 to 1927- This produced a larger number of
Zaytuna graduates and thus a flood on the already limited job market. Fourthly by
1920 most of the Zaytuna students found themselves at an academic disadvantage
in the competition for public jobs in relation to the students from the
Franco-Arab schools, the secondary colleges like Sadiqiyyah, and "l'Ecole
Normale." The Zaytuna students felt like devalorises in comparison
to their modern student comrades who met at the library of the Khalduniyyah or
at the literary club founded by the anciens de Sadiqi (the Sadiqiyyah alumni)
(Maghreb, 1968, No. 25 P. 29).
This
competition situation was also aggravated further by the reemphasis on the
Sadiqiyyah diploma and its importance in obtaining certain government jobs by
the Decree of February 16, 1922. Some of these jobs were desired by Zaytuna
graduates. In article 10 of the Decree of 1922, it stated that 1/2 of the
principle interpreters were to be recruited from the graduates of Sadiqiyyah
College and 1/2 from the graduates of "l'Ecole Superieure de langue et
litterature arabes." Most Zaytuna students didn't qualify for these jobs
because they lacked competence in French (Sraieb, 1971, p. 115).
With
the reemphasis on the Sadiqiyyah diploma, the diploma of Zaytuna graduates
further lost importance in its ability to secure jobs. By the 1920's there were
few jobs in the religious courts, institutions of education, and government for
which Zaytuna graduates were qualified. This lack of jobs motivated these
students to push for reform which would improve the value of the Zaytuna
diploma and help them to be more competitive with Sadiqiyyah graduates and
graduates of the French directed schools. However this reform was slow in
coming; and this slowness resulted in an increased anxiety among the Zaytuna
students, demonstrations and strikes for reform in the 1920's and the early
part of the 1930's.
Monetary crisis: In addition
to the increasing number of students at Zaytuna and the job crisis, there was a
monetary crisis which affected Zaytuna. This crisis was a result of the war's
depletion of habus funds from which Zaytuna received its support. This lack of funds
resulted in Zaytuna professors, who belonged to the old wealthy families,
depleting their own funds in order to maintain their existence. The teachers at
Zaytuna who did not come from these wealthy families often suffered the
greatest. Many of these teachers had to travel throughout Tunisia in order to
obtain a salary for their teaching Services (De Montety, 1951, No. 13 p. 27).
This
depletion forced Zaytuna to make compromises in order to obtain government
funds, funds which in 1924 amounted to 50,000 francs (Le Depeche Tunisienne, December
26, 1924). These compromises paved the way for the changes introduced by
the Decree of 1933. After the depletion of these habus funds, Zaytuna could no longer
ignore the demands of the government if it wanted to insure its existence.
Madrasa problems: The
improvement of the conditions at the madrasas was one of the demands of the
student strikers in 1910, but by the 1920's the madrasas were still in a state
of ill-repair. In addition to the unimproved conditions which existed in these
establishments, an unsanitary condition existed there which bred diseases. Thus
the madrasas, the places where Zaytuna students lived, were in desperate need
of improvement.
Reform Efforts Affecting Zaytuna
In the
1920's there were various efforts to bring about more reform at Zaytuna. These
efforts revealed themselves by newspaper articles which pointed out weaknesses
at Zaytuna and asked for reform, by a student strike, and by the setting up of
a reform commission. This section will present a discussion of these various
efforts.
Newspaper attack on Zaytuna
In the
1920's there were various articles in the newspapers which pointed out
weaknesses at Zaytuna and sought reform. Some of these reform-seeking articles
were written in the Tunis Socialiste by Mohammed Nomane. In various articles
Nomane wrote, he mentioned the lack of modern sciences at Zaytuna and the need
for an administrative reform of the nizara. Concerning the lack of science at
Zaytuna, Nomane stated that the students at Zaytuna, unless they had attended
classes at Sadiqiyyah or Khalduniyyah, were "ignorant" of the
"elements of physical and natural science." This lack of a well-rounded
education was one of the factors which brought about student agitation in 1924
(Nomane, Tunis Socialist, June 27, 1924).
Concerning
the nizara, Nomane criticized the dual role of administrators of Zaytuna and of
the Sharica. Nomane stated that it would be impossible for these men to be
effective in both jobs. Nomane pointed out that when the administrators were
called upon to give their full efforts to one of these jobs because of an
urgent need, the other job would have to suffer (Nomane, Tunis Socialist, June
27, 1924).
Student strike of 1924
As a
result of the unimproved conditions at Zaytuna, there was a student strike in
1924. This strike, as well as one which occurred in 1929, "marked the
persistence" of the students to improve the quality of their education so
that they would be better prepared for the available jobs (La Voix Du Tunisien,
L’Esprit Nouveau, April 6, 1937).
Reform commission of 1924
Because
of the strong pressures which were placed on the government to reform Zaytuna,
another reform commission was created in June 1924 (La Voix Du Tunisien, "A
La Grande Mosque”, April 12, 1930). The meetings of this commission were
in secret and little was reported on it in the newspapers of 1924; however from
later reports, some information can be obtained. Concerning this secrecy
Thierry, the director general of the interior in 1930, stated, "not one [of
the reform commissions] has concealed itself above the commission in 1924. . . (La Depeche Tunisienne, “La Djemaa Zitouna,” April
6, 1930)."
The
establishment of a commission in 1924 demonstrates the interworking of the
government in Tunisia at that period of time. Those who agreed on this action
included the Prime Minister, Mustapha Dinguizli; the Regent-General, Lucien
Saint; and Muhammad al-Habib Bey. With the support of these three chief
officials, the commission of 1924 was organized. The presidency was conferred
on the Prime Minister and/or the government of the Protectorate. The
protectorate government was represented successively by two director generals
of the interior, Penset and Ristelhueber.
This
commission met together for several sessions. A reorganization proposal was
submitted to the government (L’Afrique Francaise, “A La Grade Mosquee," March
1927, pp. 206-07), but this plan wasn't fully implemented (La Voix Du Tunisien,
“La Grande Mosquee," June 3, 1931). This apparent lack of action by the
government and the reform commission was one of the problems which led to
further student agitation in the 1920's.
Decrees issued affecting Zaytuna
There
were two decrees issued in the 1920's which affected Zaytuna. The first decree
was issued on June 4, 1924 as a result of the 1924 reform commission and was a
modification of the Decree of September 16, 1912. The second decree was issued
on July 1, 1929 and dealt with the establishment of a test for notary
positions.
The Decree of June 4, 1924: A decree
affecting Zaytuna was issued on June 4, 1924. This decree modified articles 44,
45, and 47 of the Decree of September 16, 1912. Article 44 was modified by
stating that the two Shaykhs al-Islam were to inspect the application of the Decree
of 1912. This modification was more of title changes than a modification, for
the same men with different titles were performing these inspection tasks.
Article 45 of the Decree of 1924 deleted the role of the Bash-Mufti in casting
the deciding vote in the case of a tie among the nizara. In article 47 the
meeting time of the inspectors was changed from 8:00 p.m. to a non-specified
time in the evening (Journal Officiel Tunisien, July 23, 1924, pp. 947-48). Though
the Decree of June 4, 1924 did modify the Decree of September 16, 1912, these
changes were only minor and failed to meet the demands of the student strikers.
For instance this decree didn't change the dual job capacity of the Shaykh
al-Islam as administrator of Zaytuna and the Judicial branch of Islam in
Tunisia; this was one of the major student demands at that time. This lack of
improvement of the nizara resulted in further newspaper attacks in the early
1930's.
Decree of July 1, 1929: The Decree
of July 1, 1929 indirectly affected Zaytuna by further limiting the job
prospects to Zaytuna graduates. According to this decree a Zaytuna graduate had
to take an examination before he could become a notary (Decret du 1st
Juillet 1929, 1930, Tunis). Before this time, according to the Decree of
February 4, 1880, the Zaytuna diploma attributed to these students the
"Quality of notary (Bompard, 1888, p. 390)." Thus a student only
needed his diploma to qualify for such a position. This examination created by
the Decree of 1929 made it hard for a Zaytuna graduate to become a notary; for
not only did this student have to take a test, but he also had to take a test
which included materials which were not taught at Zaytuna.
Since
this decree made it even harder for Zaytuna students to get jobs, it created a
state of agitation among the students and was one of the causes for a student
strike in 1929. The 1929 strike was aimed at illustrating the "impatience" of the students for reform (L’Afrique Francaise, “Tunis:
L’ Agitation a la Grand Mosquee," June 1933, No. 6 pp. 347-49). Although
reform was slow in coming following this strike, it was successful in stopping
the enforcement of the 1929 decree and in motivating the creation of another
reform commission in 1930.
Annex to Zaytuna
In
addition to the problems Zaytuna graduates were having in finding jobs and
Zaytuna officials were having in meeting the reform demands of the students, newspapers,
professors, and other groups, Zaytuna was also faced with a problem of
overpopulation. Since the student body of Zaytuna had grown from around 800 at
the time the Protectorate was established to approximately 2,000 in 1927, it
became necessary to set up an annex to Zaytuna to help alleviate Zaytuna's crowded
conditions. This annex was established at Sidi Youssef Mosque on April 16 1927
(L’Afrique Francaise, March 1927, pp. 206-07). (this annex was moved to
El-Hafsi Mosque of the Qasbah on September 12, 1932) (De Montety, 1951, p. 29).
Although the students in the primary level were taught at this annex, there
still existed a crowded condition at Zaytuna which hindered the quality of
education being presented at this grand center of Islamic studies.
Nationalism And Its Affect On Zaytuna
The
1920's was a time of increased nationalism in Tunisia. It was during this
period that the Destour party developed and became a force for nationalism in
Tunisia. This party didn't push for grand reform as had the "Young Tunisians,"
but it strived to obtain more autonomy for Tunisia from France (Brown, 1962,
pp. 78-156).
At this
time of growing nationalism, La Tunisie Martyr, a book emphasizing nationalism,
was published. This book, which Ibn Ashur credits Shaykh Thaaalibi with
writing, emphasized the good points of the days before the establishment of the
Protectorate. Commenting on France the
book stated; la France fait de L'obscurantisme systemallzue, un moyen de
gouvernment. C'est, en effet, comme l'auteur le remarque ailleurs, la politique
des Tzars regnant sur 1'ignorance de peuple russe (Rober-Raynaud, , pp. 23-14). Thus
according to Shaykh Thaaalibi, France was taking advantage of the Tunisians
rather than helping them.
The
increase in nationalism resulted in an increased effort to reform Zaytuna so
that the Zaytuna students could better understand their own country. This effort
strived for and obtained an increase in the number of history and geography
courses offered at Zaytuna in the 1930’s. As the number of these courses was
increased, Zaytuna's students developed even stronger feelings of nationalism.
Although
Zaytuna was weak in its support of nationalism during the 1920's because it
didn't teach nationalistic classes like history and geography (these courses
were to be taught according to the Decrees of 1875 and 1912, but they had
little or no emphasis in the 1920’s), it helped nationalism by its emphasis on
traditionalism. Zaytuna was the structure in which the religion of Islam was
taught. It was Zaytuna which fought against the French influence in Tunisia. It
was at Zaytuna that the Arabic language was preserved more than at any other
institution in Tunisia. Furthermore it was Zaytuna which united the traditional
factions of Tunisia. All these factors of religion, resistance to foreign
control, language, and traditionalism contributed to the development of
nationalism in Tunisia. Thus Zaytuna was not only affected by nationalism in
that this movement sought more nationalistic courses at Zaytuna, but it also
influenced the development of nationalism by perpetuating some of the basic
principles upon which nationalism was built.
A General View Of Education In Tunisia
From
the statistics given in Table 9, one can obtain an idea of the growth of the
number of students in the Lycee Carnot, Sadiqiyyah College, and Alaoui College.
It is also interesting to note the low number of Muslim girls in the education
system. The proportion of French girls to boys is higher in the education
system than the proportion of Muslim girls to Muslim boys. Yet it can be noted
that the population of Muslim girls in these schools more than doubled between 1921
and 1924. This increase is probably related to three factors which included the
removal of some traditional barriers after the war which
had prevented girls from obtaining an education, the increased pressure being
made on Tunisia to become a modern state, and the important emphasis being
placed on education.
Table 9
Secondary-Education Statistics in Tunisia
(Regence De Tunis, 1924, Tunis)
Total
in
Year School
(Selected) Muslim
French School
1921 Lycee
Carnot 136 727 1,450
Sadiqiyyah
College 406 ----- 406
Alaoui
College 127 158 308
_______________________________________________________________
Schools (Total under Boys 807 1,316 2,791
French Director) Girls 110 955 1,364
_______________________________________________________________
1924 Lycee
Carnot 259 750 1,768
Sadiqiyyah
College 346 ----- 346
Alaoui
College 146 213 386
_______________________________________________________________
Schools (Total under Boys 887 1,365 33,097
French Director) Girls 224 1,019 1,579
________________________________________________________________
Table
10 presents a comparison between the number of students in these schools which
came under the control of the Director of Education in the years 1914, 1915,
1918, 1921, 1923, and 1924. It is interesting to observe that in the 1920*s not
only the French population, but also the Muslim population increased in these
schools. This increase might be a result of the job market requiring persons
who had a more liberal education and a knowledge of French and Arabic as taught
in the French directed schools rather than the traditional Islamic and Arabic
centered education presented at Zaytuna. Comparing the 1914 figures with the
1924 figures reveals that the Muslim population at Sadiqiyyah College had
decreased while the Muslim population at Lycee Carnot and Alaoui College had
increased. This was the beginning of a decline in Sadiqiyyah. Although there
was an increase in the number of Muslim children attending the French directed
secondary schools, still the majority of Muslim children went to Zaytuna. In
comparing the number of Muslim students who attended French directed schools in
1924 (Regence De Tunis, 1925, Tunis) with the Muslim students who attended
Zaytuna in 1914 and 1927 (L’Afrique Francaise, March 1927, pp. 206-07), it can
be noted that 1,111 Muslim students attended French directed schools in 1924
(this included Sadiqiyyah College) while 1,200 students attended Zaytuna in
1914 and 2,000 were there in 1927. Thus it can be seen that although the Muslim
population was increasing in these French directed schools, it was still low
when compared to those who were still receiving the traditional education.
Table 10
Comparison of Secondary-School
Populations
(Regence De Tunis, 1915, 1918, 1924,
1925)
Total
in
School (Selected) Year Muslim French School
Lycee Carnot 1914 99 631 1,126
1917 70 670 1,247
1921 136 727 1,450
1922 154 712 1,468
1923 198 721 1,598
1924 259 750 1,768
__________________________________________
Sadiqiyyah College 1914 393
--- 393
1921 372 --- 372
1921 406 --- 406
1922 435 --- 435
1923 421 --- 421
1924 346 --- 346
___________________________________________
Alaoui College 1914 96 170 319
1917 99 165 298
1921 127 158 308
1922 155 212 397
1923 154 209 405
1924 146 213 386
__________________________________________
Summary
After
World War I reform didn't come immediately to Zaytuna; but there were various
demonstrations by students and newspapers which pointed to the need for reform.
During the period covered in this chapter from 1918 to 1929, only minor decrees
were issued affecting Zaytuna—even though a reform commission was organized in
1924 to introduce needed reform.
One
direct result of World War I which placed Zaytuna officials in a less
conservative position was the decline in habus funds and the resulting reliance
by Zaytuna on governmental assistance. After this time Zaytuna found that it
was necessary to affiliate itself with, rather than alienate itself from, the
government.
The
decline in job offerings was another problem for Zaytuna students. These
students were only qualified for a few jobs in the developing state of Tunisia.
In addition to this, these jobs became scarcer as competition increased from
the graduates of Sadiqiyyah and the French directed schools. These graduates
were better equipped for non-religious jobs because of their understanding of
French and Arabic. To add to the job problem for Zaytuna graduates, the number
of students at Zaytuna had greatly increased. The student population had risen
from 900 in 1908 to around 2,000 in 1927- Thus more Zaytuna students were
hunting for fewer available jobs. To further increase the job headaches, a
decree was issued in 1929 which stated that Zaytuna students, for the first
time, would have to take a test in order to be appointed as a notary (this
decree caused student demonstrations and was not enforced, but after it was
issued it did create pressure on the already frustrated students at Zaytuna).
The
increased pressures on Zaytuna students for jobs coupled with Zaytuna's lack of
modern courses created a drive for reform in the Zaytuna students. This drive
manifested itself in 1924 and 1929 when the students demanded reform. Though no
major reform resulted from the 1924 demands, except for a slight reform of the
nizara, the demands in 1929 resulted in the organization of another reform
commission in 1930. This period was also a time in which the young nationalists
were increasing. Through their efforts they strived to obtain freedom for
Tunisia from France. This group was also desirous that more nationalistic
courses be taught at Zaytuna. Thus Zaytuna was receiving pressure from many
sources to reform its educational policies.
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La Depeche Tunisienne, "La Djemaa Zitouna: La
Commission Consultative a tenu hier sa premiere seance " (April 6, 1930).
Maghreb, L'Evolution Pe L'Enseignement Traditionnel en
Tunisie," No. 25 (January to February 1968).
Noel, Ch., "Conferences A L'lnstitut De Carthage 8
Novembre 1918; A La Grande Mosquee de Tunis," Revue Tunisienne No. 131
(January, 1919).
Noureddine, Sraieb, "Enseignement, Elites et
Systemes Pe Valeur
Le
College Sadiki De Tunis," Annuaire De L'Afrique Du Nord, X (1971)
Nomane, Mohammed, "au Divan Impressions de
Voyage," Tunis Socialiste
(June 27, 1924).
L'Afrique Francaise,"Tunis: L'Agitation a la Grande
Mosquee de Tunis," No. 6 (June 1933).
L'Afrique Francaise (March 1927); see also L'Afrique
Francaise; Chronique De Tunisie (August 1922-August 1928) (Tunis; J. Barlier
&Cie, 1928).
Regence De Tunis; Protectorat Francais (1921) (Tunis;
Societe Anonyme De L’Imperimerie Rapide, 1922); Regence De Tunis; Protectorat
Francais (1924) (Tunis; J. Barlier and Cie, 1925).
Regence De Tunis; Protectorat Francais (1914)
(Tunis; Societe Anonyme De L’Imprimerie Rapide. 1915), p. 85; Regence De Tunis;
Protectorat Francais (1917) (Tunis: Societe Anonyme De L'lmprimerie Rapide,
1918), p. 88; Regence De Tunis: Protectorat Francais (1921) (Tunis: Societe
Anonyme De L'lmprimerie, 1922), p. 93; Regence De Tunis; Protectorat Francais
(1922) (Tunis: J. Barlier and Cie, 1924), p. 99; Regence De Tunis; Protectorat
Francais (1923) (Tunis: J. Barlier and Cie: 1924), p. 99; Regence De Tunis: Protectorat
Francais (1924) (Tunis; J. Barlier and Cie, 1925) p. 101.
Regence De Tunis: Protectorat Francais (1924) (Tunis: J.
Barlier and Cie, 1925).
Rober-Raynaud, La Tunisie Sans Les Francais (Paris;
Edition Du Comite Algerie-Tunisie-Maroc, ).
Table 8: The
information for this table was derived from three sources; the
1875 figures came from L. Machuel, "L'Enseignement Musulman en Tunisie,"
Revue Tunisienne (1897), p. 393; the 1906 figures came from Gaston Loth, La
Tunisie Et L'Oeuvre Pu Protectorat Francais (Paris; Ch. Pelagrave, 1907), pp.
78-79; and the 1918 figures came from Noel, p. 129.
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