Chapter 4
ZAYTUNA AND EARLY PROTECTORATE DAYS
The
establishment of Tunisia as a French Protectorate in 1881 was one of the chief
events which accelerated the modernization of Tunisia and the reformation of
Zaytuna University. This period was marked by the increased introduction of
"modern" ideas which helped elicit and apply pressure on the
traditional factions of Tunisia to more fully conform to modernizing Tunisia.
Teachers and students were encouraged to seek reform at Zaytuna that would
increase the number of "modern science" subjects taught with the
traditional curriculum of this Islamic institution. The state of Zaytuna
following the establishment of the Protectorate is the central focus of this
chapter.
The Establishment Of The Protectorate
As a
result of the serious financial problems that Tunisia had acquired and France's
desire to protect its occupation of Algeria, the French forced Sadiq Bey to
sign a decree on May 12, 1881 establishing Tunisia as a Protectorate of France
(Fitoussi and Benazet, 1931, Doc. No. 6). This action was not only an important
political development, but it also brought great anxiety to the Muslim leaders
who feared that the Protectorate government would bring changes that would
affect their leadership status and the observance of Islamic principles (Ibn
Ashur, 1967, p. 97).
The Bey during the Protectorate period
After
the Protectorate was established, the power of the Bey decreased. The Bey was
still considered the political head of Tunisia on paper, but his power was
weakened to a position of endorsement.
Establishment of Director of Education
One
place where the French took an active part in the affairs of Tunisia was in
education. This role increased as a result of the establishment of the
Directorship of Public Education by a decree issued on May 6, 1883 (Zeys, 1901,
p. 349). At that time, Machuel was appointed the first director.
As
Director of Public Education, Machuel introduced a French-type education
(Ziadeh, 1969, pp. 29-30) which he hoped would benefit the total population
(Rapport Sur L’Enseignement, 1932, pp. 21-22). Yet this type of education was
only introduced on a limited basis, for the conservative factions at Zaytuna
rebelled against the idea that the French could influence developments at
Tunisia's grand center of Islamic studies.
French schools: With the establishment
of the Protectorate, the number of Muslim students in French schools increased.
In these schools Arabic was placed in the background as an optional subject
while French was the language of instruction. Even the tests were given in
French (Amoretti, 1931). Although this use of French limited the number of
Muslim students who attended these schools, those who did attend became exposed
to European ideas. This exposure resulted in many of these students later
seeking for reform of Zaytuna in order to make possible the study of modern ideas
at this Islamic school.
In 1884
two important schools were founded by the French—a normal school and
"L'Ecole Superieure de Langue et Litterature Arabes." The normal
school provided the necessary teachers for the Regency and helped the French
implement their educational programs (Chatelain, 1937, p. 24). "L'Ecole Superieure
de Langue et Litterature Arabes" gave the French an opportunity to learn
the Arabic language (Chatelain, 1937, p. 269). In establishing these two schools,
the French made great advancements in producing teachers to work in the
increasing number of schools and in training people, who had an understanding
of both the Arabic and the French languages and the Tunisian and the French
cultures, to work in the government.
By 1890
the French had established the Saint Charles school (later known as Lycee
Carnot) and the Alaoui College. These were both secondary schools which
introduced Muslim students to modern science courses. The Alaoui College
satisfied the needs of young people who were not destined for education in the
French system (La Depeche Tunisienne, Oct. 1, 1890). In the Saint Charles
school, the Tunisians learned French with "remarkable ease (La Depeche
Tunisienne, Aug. 6, 1890)" and prepared themselves for further education
in the French educational system.
While
these European schools were developing in Tunisia, Zaytuna continued to emphasize
a traditional curriculum. Because of Zaytuna's reluctance to reform, both Director
of Education Machuel, and Resident-General Millet attacked Zaytuna's policy.
Zaytuna And The Early Protectorate Period
The
unofficial policy of the French was to consider Zaytuna a private school
(Micaud, 1964, p. 14). Concerning this position Machuel stated: ". . . all
considerations urge us not to touch the collegiate edifice [the 'Zaituna'
Mosque] which they have erected so painstakingly and of which they are so justly
proud. Let us rather help them to enhance its prestige and to improve its
quality. . . . (Green, 1973, p. 151)" Zaytuna represented the Islamic
culture and the religious ties the Tunisians had with Islam. For the French to
tamper with this institution would have meant an uprising of the people and
perhaps a jihad (a holy war against the French). Because of this attitude on
the part of French officials, it is interesting to note that when reforms were
issued affecting Zaytuna, the French usually remained in the background.
Although
the French policy was generally to leave Zaytuna alone, Machuel often tried to
exercise some control over the affairs of Zaytuna and to introduce reform
there. Though Machuel was usually defeated, one success which he had was in
obtaining his nominee, Muhammad Al-Qurtubi, to replace one of the deputy
inspectors of education at the Great Mosque. This was accomplished even though
Ahmad Ibn Al-Khuja, the Shaykh al-Islam, had desired that someone else be given
those inspection duties (Green, 1973, p. 157).
Zaytuna
was placed under the Director of Education in 1883. At this time it was
inspected by two representatives of Machuel; these two inspectors replaced the
officials who had been responsible to the Prime Minister after the Decree of
1876. From 1883 to 1898, the affairs of Zaytuna were, to some extent, coordinated
by the Director of Education assisted by two inspectors, one Hanafite and the
other Malikite, chosen from among the first class professors at Zaytuna (La
Voix Tunisien, April 6, 1937).
Decrees affecting Zaytuna
The
decrees which were issued during the period from 1881 to 1895 were minor when
compared to the Decree of December 26, 1875. But these decrees manifested a
further attempt to improve the condition and increase governmental control of
Zaytuna.
Decree of February 13. 1883: The Decree
of February 13, 1883 affected the salary of Zaytuna professors who taught at
Sadiqiyyah College. This decree stated that Zaytuna professors who taught
classes at Sadiqiyyah would not have money subtracted from their regular salary
for the time that they were involved with the examinations at Sadiqiyyah (Zeys,
1901, pp. 339-41). With the issuing of this decree, Zaytuna professors were given more liberty to associate themselves with Sadiqiyyah
College. Thus professors and students of Zaytuna were able
to become better acquainted with the modern ideas presented at Sadiqiyyah. This
increased relationship between Zaytuna professors and Sadiqiyyah was another of
the factors which brought efforts to reform Zaytuna.
Decree of November 4, 1884: On November
4, 1884 another decree was issued affecting Zaytuna. This decree dealt with the
exams at Zaytuna. It reemphasized the fact, as previously stated by the Decree of
1875 that exams were only to be given at Dar-al-Bey (Bompard, 1888, pp. 183-92).
Decree of February 22, 1885: The Decree
of February 22, 1885 placed the library of Sadiqiyyah under the direction of
the Shaykh inspectors of the Great Mosque (Zeys, 1901, p. 350). This action
demonstrated a further connection being made between Zaytuna and Sadiqiyyah. It
also introduced more responsibility for the Shaykh-inspectors of Zaytuna. This increased
responsibility made it more difficult for these men to be fully effective in
their duties as administrators at Zaytuna, administrators of the sharia, and
after the issuing of this decree, administrators of the Sadiqiyyah library.
Decree of June 13, 1892: On June 13,
1892 another decree was issued affecting the hiring of Zaytuna professors. This
proclamation stated that in the event of a vacancy at the Great Mosque, the
position of second class professor could only be given after a competitive
examination which was to be taken in the presence of the inspectors of the Zaytuna
studies. Only those who had obtained the grade of mutawwaa and had two years of
teaching experience at the Great Mosque would be able to compete on the
examination. The vacancy was to be announced by the Prime Minister at least 15
days before the examination.
This
procedure of admitting mutawwaan by competitive examinations to become second
class professors was, according to this decree, only to be effective for a
period of 5 years. After that time those admitted would have to take another
type of examination further explained in the decree. This new examination was
to consist of both an oral and a written test on the subject matter taught at
Zaytuna. The candidate for this examination was also to prepare a lesson which
dealt with some subject that was taught at Zaytuna. The new examination was to
be announced by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister was also to decide the
date and the subjects to be covered on the examination. The test was to be held
in the government building for 3 days. For a mutawwaa to qualify for this new
test, he needed to have two years of teaching experience at Zaytuna. Not only
could a mutawwaa become a second class professor by means of a competitive
examination, but also a second class professor could compete for a vacant
position in the ranks of the first class professors by the same procedure.
This
decree also explained the tatwia, the Zaytuna diploma (one who possessed this
diploma was considered a mutawwaa). This diploma was only to be given to
students after a special examination. This examination consisted of both a
written and an oral test on various subjects taught at the Great Mosque. This
test was also to be announced by the Prime Minister, who was charged with
determining the date of the examination, its conditions, and the subjects which
it would cover. This test was also to be given in the government building.
This
decree was a major move in improving the examinations for the professors at Zaytuna.
Before this time the inspectors determined the person's qualifications only by
his performance on an oral examination.
Now
they also had to give a written examination. With these two examinations and
the rating received on each, the inspectors were able to better evaluate the
qualifications of the person applying to become a professor (Al Muchrif, 1930,
IV pp. 470-71).
The
giving of a written examination to both those applying for teaching positions
and students working for the tatwia was a new idea for Zaytuna. The oral
display of one’s memory was the prime focus before this time. Now these
students and the mutawwaan had to be able to write what they had memorized. To
some of these test takers, this was more difficult because writing hadn't been
emphasized to the extent that the medieval-memory approach had. The students
didn't take notes on the class lectures; they strived to memorize them. Thus
the addition of a written section on the test would eliminate all those who
hadn't obtained a working knowledge of the written language, but had a memorized
oration of everything the professor had presented in class. Ironically enough
this handicap brought about by the students' inability to write was a result of
the inadequate educational system which relied heavily on the test.
Another
interesting thing is that the Prime Minister was given the responsibility for
the examination. It was the Prime Minister, not the Zaytuna officials, who was
to determine the test's date, its conditions, and the subjects which it was to
cover. This further demonstrates the active role that the occupational
government was taking in regulating the affairs of Zaytuna.
Decree of July 8, 1894: The Decree
of July 8, 1894 dealt with an addition to the works available for study at
Zaytuna. This decree simply added Al Moula Meskin on Hanafite jurisprudence to
the works already being studied (Zeys, 1901, p. 366). This decree was necessary
because, according to the Decree of December 26, 1875, any additions to the
works already listed in the Decree of 1875 were to be recommended by the
inspectors and approved by the government. In this instance, the addition had
to be instigated by decree.
General affairs at Zaytuna (1881-1895)
From
the accounts on Zaytuna in La Tunisie; Histoire et Description, a general
understanding of the affairs at Zaytuna during the 1890's can be obtained.
According to this account there were 830 students at Zaytuna; 195 of these
students were from Tunis; 149 came from the region of the Sahel, the coastal
region; approximately 141 came from Cape Bon, and the other 345 students came
from various areas of the Regency. As expected the students from Tunis, the
capital city of Tunisia, were generally the most industrious. These students,
the elite of Tunisian youth, were children of functionaries, magistrates,
notaries, and merchants. The ages of these students varied from 16 to 30 and it
wasn't unusual to see a man
sitting in one of the circles with grey hair.
In 1895
there were 31 professors of the first class at Zaytuna. Out of these
professors, 16 were of the Malikite rite and 15 were of the Hanafite rite.
There were also 13 professors of the second class and 67 mutawwaa. Interestingly
enough the mutawwaan received no pay for their regular services, a typical
Middle Eastern pattern.
The
various professors gave a minimum of two lessons which were given at Zaytuna each
day out of the approximately 270. Often the same subjects were taught by
several professors using the same works. During this time the most popular
courses dealt with law, Arabic grammar, and Islamic theology.
The
lectures began at sunrise and were held continuously until evening. Sometimes
one could observe 15 professors sitting on mats with their backs against one of
the columns in the room of prayer teaching their circle of students.
According
to La Tunisie: Histoire et Description, a student usually studied at Zaytuna a
minimum of 7 years before presenting himself for the tatwia examination. The
tatwia was like a license for these students. With this diploma they were
qualified to apply for a professorship at Zaytuna or for certain public
positions. These public positions included that of "clerks, notaries, employees
in the administration, etc. . . ."
The tatwia
examination was very difficult, and few were successful in passing it. For
instance in 1895 there were 66 students who submitted themselves for the tatwia
examination. Only 4 of these 66 students, or approximately 6%, were successful
in passing that test (La Tunisie, 1896, II pp. 213-18. Some of the difficulty
in passing the examination was a result of the inspectors’ severe evaluations
of the students' performances on the test. In an educational system in which
memory played an important role, a test based on memory could be very
difficult. A person taking such an examination could make only some minor word
exchanges or deletions and have his fate left to the grace of the inspectors,
who usually held to high standards of performance. The addition of a written
section to this examination by the Decree of 1892 was to eliminate favoritism
by the inspectors, but because these students were usually poorly prepared for
a written test, having a written section was usually a hindrance rather than an
aid.
In
addition to the regular classes which the students took at Zaytuna, many of the
students studied French. This language was usually studied at the time nearest
to the examination conducted by the Director of Education. This examination was
given to those students who wished to be exempt from military service. Though
these Zaytuna students studied French, they usually found themselves unprepared
for the severe examination which covered subjects with which they were not
familiar.
While
the students from outside the Tunis area were studying at Zaytuna, they were
lodged in madrasas. There were about 22 of these establishments which offered
about 450 rooms for these students. The conditions in these places were poor
and often very unsanitary.21 These unsatisfactory conditions were another
factor which motivated students to seek reform in 1910.
Summary
During
the period from 1881 to 1895, the Protectorate government was established by
the French in Tunisia and the French began to take an active role in the
educational affairs of that country. In 1883, two years after this
establishment, the Directorship of Public Education was founded with Machuel as
the first Director. At this time Zaytuna was placed under Machuel's direction,
but because of opposition from the conservative factions of Tunisia, he had
little influence over the affairs of that institution.
With
the establishment of the Protectorate government, the French increased the
number of schools they sponsored in Tunisia. It was during this period that the
Saint Charles school and the Alaoui College was established. In these two
schools both Muslim youth and French youth were exposed to modern sciences and
the European languages. This exposure was one of the factors which motivated
these Muslim youth to seek reform of the traditional education at Zaytuna. The
French further established a normal school for training teachers and
"L'Ecole Superieure de Langue et Litterature Arabes" for teaching
French youth Arabic in preparation for governmental work. The establishment of
these latter two schools made it harder for Zaytuna students to get government jobs
because they were less prepared than those who were proficient in both Arabic
and French.
There
were five minor decrees issued during the 14 year period investigated in this
chapter. A decree issued on February 13, 1883 made allowances for Zaytuna
professors to be involved at Sadiqiyyah without a loss of pay. This decree
further opened the way for Zaytuna professors to become better aware of the
advantages of a secular and religious education. The Decree of November 4, 1884
restated the location of the Zaytuna examination at Par al-Bey. The Decree of February
22, 1885 placed the Sadiqiyyah library under the Shaykh inspectors of Zaytuna.
This action added increased responsibility to these inspectors. This multiple
responsibility came under attack in later years because it was difficult for
these shaykhs to fully be effective in all their duties. The Decree of June 13,
1892 strived to improve the testing of the mutawwaan for future positions as
professors. One significant statement of this decree declared that the tests
would be oral and written. Before this time oral testing was the method usually
followed. This new decree placed an additional hardship on Zaytuna students who
were poor in writing. The Decree of July 8, 1894 added Al Moula Meskin on
Hanafite jurisprudence to the works being studied at Zaytuna.
By the
1890's the students at Zaytuna were also studying French. This study was mainly
motivated by the examination given by the Director of Education for exemption
from military service. However, even with this study of French, these students
often found themselves unprepared to answer many of the questions on the
examination.
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