Chapter 6
REFORM AND WORLD WAR I
The
period from 1912 to 1915 was a significant period of reform for Zaytuna. It was
in 1912, two years after the Zaytuna students had celebrated the success of
their strike, that reform decrees were issued by the Bey affecting the
educational affairs at Zaytuna. The end of this period saw the eruption of
World War I. This war not only affected the world, but it also influenced
Tunisia and Zaytuna. These various reforms and the factors which brought them
about during the 1912 to 1915 period is the focus of this chapter.
The 1912 Reforms At Zaytuna
There
were four decrees issued in 1912. Three of these decrees were issued by the Bey
on September 16, 1912. The fourth decree was issued on November 16, 1912. These
decrees dealt with the education and the inspection of Zaytuna.
First decree of September 16, 1912
The
first decree which was issued on September 16, 1912 dealt with the curriculum,
the teaching, and the students at Zaytuna. In the opening statements of this
decree, the purpose of this proclamation is stated as follows:
Having decided
to modify some of the dispositions of . . . [previous] decrees . . . by the
adjunction of certain articles corresponding to the new needs and the
suppression of certain others which are no longer useful; on the proposition of
our Prime Minister; [The decree of September 16, 1912 was issued] (Al Muchrif,
1930, p. 472).
It can
be noted from this statement that the purpose of this decree was to modernize
the educational practices at Zaytuna. in accomplishing this modernization, the
first decree of 1912 presented 5 chapters and 81 articles which either reformed
or maintained older practices.
The
main points of each chapter were as follows: Chapter 1 dealt with the science
classes at Zaytuna, the works to be studied, and the classification of these
works; Chapter 2 defined the situation of each professor (mudarris); Chapter 3
dealt with the situation of the students; Chapter 4 defined the attributes of
the inspectors; and 5 dealt with the library.
In
article 1 the sciences that were to be taught at Zaytuna were listed. These
sciences were as follows: tafsir (interpretations of the Qur'an), hadlth (traditions), tawhld (theology—unitarianism), as-siyar (conduct of Muhammad), aurud
(prosody), al-mustalah (agreement of the hadith), 'usul al-fiqh (principles of
jurisprudence), al-fiqh (jurisprudence), al-fra’id (the laws dealing with
inheritance), at-tasawwuf (mysticism—Sufism), al-miqat (art of knowing the
hours of prayers), an-nahw (grammar), as-sarf (syntax), al-maaani wa al-bayan (rhetoric),
al-lughah wa al-'adab (Arabic language and literature), al-jughrafiyah wa
at-tarikh (geography and history), ar-rasm wa al-khatt (drawing and
calligraphy), al-qira'ah wa at-tajwid (lecture and modulation of the Qur'an),
al-mantiq (logic), al-'adab ash-shariaah (the morals of the law), hi sab
(mathematics), al-jabr (algebra), al-handasa (geometry), ailm al-hay'ah
(astronomy), and al-misahah (surveying).
In
Table 5 there is a comparison of the courses listed in the Decree of 1875 and
those listed in the Decree of 1912. From this comparison it appears that the
only difference in basic subjects was that algebra was included in the Decree
of 1912, whereas it wasn't mentioned in the Decree of 1875 (Al Muchrif, 1930,
pp. 473-78). Algebra may have sometimes been taught with mathematics before
1912; but from Versini's 1899 report on Zaytuna, it can be noted that Zaytuna
students had to go to Khalduniyyah to obtain information on algebra (Versine,
1899, pp. 437-63). It should also be noted that history and geography
courses—one of the demands of the student strikers—were listed among the
subjects to be studied by both decrees. However there was one difference made
in the Decree of 1912. In this decree these two subjects were listed among the
obligatory sciences, a category which didn't exist in the Decree of 1875.
Table 5
A Comparison of Subjects Listed in the Decrees of
1875 and 1912
(The Arabic subject names are listed under the Decree of 1875 and
their
English translations are listed under the Decree of 1912).
Decree of 1875 Decree
of 1912
1. tafsir 1.
interpretations of the Qur'an
2. hadith wa tawhid 2.
traditions and theology
3. as-siyar wa aurud 3.
conduct of Muhammad and prosody
4. al-mustalah 4.
agreement of the hadith
5. 'usul al-fiqh 5.
principles of jurisprudence
6. al-fiqh wa ailm al-hay'ah 6.
jurisprudence and astronomy
7.
al-fara'id 7.
the laws dealing with inheritance
8. at-tasawwuf 8. mysticism; Sufism
9. al-mlqat 9. art of knowing hours of prayer
10. an-nahw wa as-sarf 10. grammar and syntax
11. al-maaani wa al-bayan 11.
rhetoric
12. al-lugh wa al-'adab 12. Arabic language and
literature
13. al-jughrafiyah wa at-tarlkh
13. geography and history
14. ar-rasm wa al-khatt 14. drawing and calligraphy
15. al-qira'ah wa at-tajwid 15. lecture and modulation of Qur'an
16. al-mantiq wa al-handasa 16. logic and geometry
17. 'adab ash-shariaah 17. the morals of the law
18. hisab wa al-misahah
18. mathematics and surveying
19. (al-jabr—not in 1875 decree)
19. algebra
Table 6
presents a comparison between the works used in the three levels (primary,
secondary, and superior) according to the Decrees of 1875 and 1912. From this
table it can be noted that the majority of text changes took place in the
superior grade level. Although they did have new works listed, the secondary
and primary levels mainly listed the same works in both decrees. Thus the same
argument that was used against the works listed in the Decree of 1875 can be
used against the works listed in the Decree of 1912. Most of the textbooks
studied at Zaytuna were centuries old and only a few were by contemporary
writers.
Table 6
Comparison of Works in 1875 and 1912 Decrees
Key:
X = Same in both Decrees
+ = Some same, some different
0 = Different
-----
= Not studied in level
Subjects Superior
Secondary Primary
1. tafslr X ----- -----
2. hadith 0 0 -----
3. tawhid ----- + X
4. as-siyar wa at- tasawwuf 0 ----- -----
5. aurud wa al-mTqat wa an-nahw ----- ----- X
6. al-mustalah 0 X -----
7. 'usul al-fiqh X + 0
8. al-fiqh 0 ----- +
9. as-sarf 0 ----- X
10. al-maaani wa al-bayan 0 ----- X
11. al-lugh wa al-'adab 0 ----- -----
12. al-jughrafiyah wa at-tarikh + ----- -----
13. ar-rasm wa al-khatt ----- ----- 0
14. al-qira'ah wa ‘adab ash-shariaah ----- X -----
15. al-mantiq X X X
16. al-hisab 0 0 0
17. al-jabr (not
listed in 1875 Decree)
18. al-handasa X 0 -----
19. ailm al-hay’ah X X -----
In
addition to the "obligatory" sciences listed in this proclamation,
students were encouraged to take non-obligatory science courses. In recognition
for success in these non-obligatory sciences, these students were to receive
acknowledgement on their diploma (tatwia).
Articles
4-6 listed the works to be studied in the primary, secondary, and superior
branches at Zaytuna. Article 9 limited the number of first class professors to
31 and the second class professors to 13. In the third class, which consisted
of the mutawwaa, there was no set number (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 473-78). The
number of 31 first class professors is one more than the total number of
professors established by the Decree of 1842. The number of professors to teach
at Zaytuna wasn't specified in the Decree of 1875; but it can be noted that in
1895, there were 31 first class professors and 13 second class professors. This
number decreased in 1908. At that time there were 30 first class professors and
12 second class professors. The even number of professors in each class made it
possible for both law schools (Hanafite and Malikite) to be equally
represented.
According
to article 10 the first class professors were the only ones who could teach
superior courses. They could also teach secondary courses. The second class
professors could teach both secondary and primary courses, and the third class
professors (mutawwaaun) could teach primary courses. It was further stated that
after three years of teaching, the mutawwaaun could be considered for teaching
secondary courses.
Article
12 of the Decree of 1912 agreed with article 8 of the Decree of 1875 in three
ways. First both articles explained that the professor was to indicate the
question to be studied before the course began. Secondly both explained that
the professor should proceed gradually from the simple to the complex. Thirdly
both agreed that on difficult problems, the professor would explain the point under
study in detail. These articles differed in one important point. Article 12 of
the Decree of 1912 specified that a professor could not move to a new question
until he was sure that the "majority" of the students
understood
the issue under consideration; conversely article 8 of the Decree of 1875
simply stated that the students, without the "majority" specification, needed to understand the
proposition before the professor could proceed to a new issue. The indefinite
nature of the Decree of 1875 caused some teachers to teach only the brighter
students.
Article
19 stated that the teachers did not have the right "to place doubt on the
principles accepted by scholars of past generations . . . ." (Al Muchrif,
1930, pp. 478-81). This article defined the traditional concept believed
in by many in the 19tn and 20th century Islamic world. This concept stated that
only the four doctors (Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafai, and Imam
Ahmad) and recognized Islamic scholars of former generations had the right to
ijtihad (the right to interpret the teachings of Islam). Rather than criticize
these recognized scholars, the Zaytuna professors were to use their learning to
understand them (the recognized scholars) and their teaching abilities to
present their (the recognized scholars) notions to the Zaytuna students.
Although at-Tahir Ibn Ashur had—a few years before this decree was
issued—stated that this lack of criticism was one of the reasons for the
decline in Islamic education, this
weakness wasn't recognized or improved by the Decree of 1912.
In
article 19 the students were also limited in their right to ask questions.
According to this article a student was to be selective in the questions he
asked the professor. The article also restricted the students from asking
questions during the lecture for immediate clarification of a point not fully
understood.
Both
articles 25 and 34 were direct answers to the demands of the 1910 strikers.
Article 25 reemphasized the fact that the professors should adhere to the fixed
times for lectures. Article 34 stated that the students who had a scholastic
notebook (on which their activities at Zaytuna were recorded and which
signified that they were registered students) would be exempt of the majba
(tax).
Article
35 restated a point which had been part of Islamic education since the days of
Muhammad. The students were to learn their lessons by heart. The analytic
methods of Europe weren't to replace Zaytuna's century-old and in many ways outdated
methods of learning.
According
to article 38 a student was to show respect for his teachers. A lack of respect
could bring varying degrees of punishment. The most severe of these punishments
was dismissal.
Article
43 stated that if a student discussed questions which were not concerned with
the studies at Zaytuna, he could be reprimanded. It could be inferred from this
article that "modern sciences" could not be taught or discussed at
Zaytuna, beyond that which was already studied, for these subjects weren't
among the courses taught at Zaytuna.
According
to article 61, the students were to take a test after summer vacation. This
examination was to determine whether or not a student was prepared to advance
to the next level of study.
Article
62 listed the method which was to be used in giving the yearly test to the students.
This method consisted of the students answering questions on specific works,
reading certain passages, and making grammatical analyses (Al Muchrif, 1930,
pp. 481-91).
In many
instances the Decree of 1912 resembled the Decree of 1875. Many of the books
and teaching methods were the same and the use of memory was emphasized in
both.
It can
be noted that certain articles of the Decree of 1912 were included to meet the
demands of the strikers. For instance article 25 satisfied the students' demand
for an increased emphasis on teachers giving their lessons at the proper times.
Article 35 met the demand for student exemption from taxes; however this
article didn't satisfy the demand for exemption from military service. Article
2 placed the study of geography and history among the "obligatory sciences”
or among the sciences to be tested as the students had requested. The students'
demand for improved living conditions was not met by this decree; these poor
living conditions became an issue in the 1930's. The final demand to decrease the
required study period before a student could take the tatwia was met by the
Decree of November 16, 1912.
The second decree of September 16, 1912
This
decree dealt with the examination regulations. It was an annex to the Decrees
of June 13, 1892 and April 29, 1908. According to this decree, one prerequisite
for becoming a teacher at Zaytuna was the possession of the tafcwt0; but this
alone wasn't enough. A graduate of Zaytuna not only had to obtain the grade of
mutawwaa, but he also had to be "authorized" by the inspectors before
he could teach at Zaytuna.
Article
4 of this decree also stated that this authorization to teach could be
withdrawn if the mutawwaa didn't prove to be successful.
Article
5 restated that the test for the tatwia would be written as well as oral. The
written portion was to be a dissertation on "one of the chapters of Muslim
law," unless a student was allowed to write on one of the other
"obligatory sciences" by special permission. The oral portion of the
test was to be taken before a jury. The student was to be given six hours to
study a question before answering it before the jury (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 495-96).
The third decree of September 16, 1912
This
decree dealt with the inspection of the Grand Mosque. It modified the Decree of
January 22, 1876. This decree restated that there would be two inspectors
responsible to the Prime Minister for the inspection of the studies at Zaytuna.
One difference was in regards to those who were co assist these inspectors. The
Decree of 1876 simply stated that the librarians would assist in the
inspection. The Decree of 1912 stated that the inspectors would choose those
who would assist them in the job of inspection. This Decree of 1912 was another
method in which the government attempted to meet the demands of the students by
making sure that the professors were at their classes when they were supposed
to be in attendance (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 487-98).
The Decree of November 16, 1912
This
decree covered the conditions for participation on the examination of the tatwia,
for the application of the regulations relative to the works of the Great
Mosque, and for the service of the inspection of the studies.
The
first article stated that students of the third and fourth years of secondary
education could apply for participation in the tatwia examination, if they had
met the proper requirements. This decree further stated, les etudiants de 2e annee, et, a plus ferte
raisen, ceux de lre annee, de l'enseignement secondaire sont soumis, au meme
titre que le reste des etudiants, aux dispositions de la nouvelle regiementation
(Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 499-500). This meant
that the students could take the tatwia examination if they were able to
produce scholastic records which demonstrated their completion of all
requirements needed before taking this examination. This last decree partially
met another one of the demands of the 1910 student strikers who requested that
the time of study before one could take the tatwla examination be shortened to three
years. If a student at the end of his first year of secondary education was
qualified to take the examination, he would have been at Zaytuna for three
years. This article eliminated the requirements of the nizara that a student
had to be at Zaytuna for seven years before he could take the examination. Unfortunately
most of the students were still at Zaytuna for seven years before they could
qualify for the examination.
Article
2 of the decree required that the librarians or their aides should assist the
inspectors in applying the regulations which dealt with the works at Zaytuna (Al
Muchrif, 1930, pp. 499-500).
Zaytuna, Tunisia, and Education—1913-15
The
Zaytuna students who attended Khalduniyyah in 1913 not only increased their
understanding of the "modern sciences," but they also increased their
nationalistic feelings by their study of geography and history (Servier, 1913,
pp. 92-103). These Zaytuna students began their nationalistic feelings by their
study of Islam. This knowledge motivated them to retain their religion and
culture which are two important foundations for nationalism. These feelings of
nationalism motivated these people to strive for a government controlled by men
who had a similar religious and cultural background. In other words they wanted
Tunisia to be ruled by Tunisians. Moreover during this period of time,
Sadiqiyyah College was still continuing to grow. One reason for the increase in
student attendance was that these students had many opportunities for
employment in government and especially in translation work. These employment opportunities
for Sadiqiyyah graduates were enhanced by the creation of the Sadiqiyyah
diploma in 1911 (Berque, 1962, pp. 487-88). Sadiqiyyah students were becoming more
employable during this period of time, whereas, Zaytuna students were becoming
less employable. The qualifications of the Sadiqiyyah graduates made them in
demand while the religious and language background of the Zaytuna students
limited their employment possibilities. This lack of jobs for Zaytuna graduates
led to a severe crisis for these students. In 1915 there were few Muslims in
the non-Muslim schools, but this population was on the increase. In the 1920's
there was a great increase the number of students attending. The job market
seems to have played an important role in this increase.
Table 7
presents the number of students in three important secondary schools which came
under French control: Lycee Carnot, Sadiqiyyah College, and Alaoui College. It
can be noted from this table, that the number of Muslim youth who attended
these French directed schools—with the exception of Sadiqiyyah College which
was for Muslim youth—was low compared to French youth in attendance. At the
same time while there was a grand total of 787 Muslim youth attending these
French directed schools, there were 1,200 youth attending Zaytuna (L’Afrique
Francaise, 1927, pp. 487-88). Thus the Muslim population in these French directed
schools may have increased after the establishment of the Protectorate, but
Zaytuna was also increasing its student population.
Table 7 (Regence De Tunis,
1916, p. 84)
Secondary-Education Statistics in Tunisia
Total
in
Year School
(Selected) Muslim French School
1914 Lycee
Carnot (grand) 73 430 726
Sadiqiyyah
College (grand) 118 ----- 118
Sadiqiyyah
College (petit) 275 ----- 275
Alaoui
College 96 170 319
__________________________________________________________
Schools (Total under Boys 685 1,055 2,261
French Director) Girls 102 755 1,113
__________________________________________________________
1915 Lycee
Carnot (grand) 65 435 735
Lycee
Carnot (petit) 16 217 389
Sadiqiyyah
College (grand) 125 ----- 125
Sadiqiyyah
College (petit) 253 ----- 253
Alaoui
College 101 180 326
__________________________________________________________
Schools (Total under Boys 685 1,055 2,261
French Director) Girls 102 755 1,113
__________________________________________________________
Summary
In 1912
the work of the reform commission, which was created after the student strike
in 1910, was manifested in the form of four decrees affecting Zaytuna; three
decrees were issued on September 16, 1912 and one decree was issued on November
16, 1912. These decrees dealt with the various aspects of education at Zaytuna
and met some of the demands of the student strikers. But in many ways, these
decrees did little to change or improve the Decree of 1875.
The
period investigated in this chapter dealt with a time when the Muslim
population in the French directed secondary schools was on the increase. At
this same time Zaytuna's population was also increasing. The increase in Muslim
population at the French directed schools produced more Muslim youth who were
exposed to the European languages and modern science. This exposure often
resulted in these youth, especially those who later attended Zaytuna, seeking
to reform that Islamic institution. The result of the increase in population at
Zaytuna meant that the Mosque was becoming crowded and it was getting difficult
to teach all the students. This over population also resulted in producing more
Zaytuna students for fewer available jobs.
Bibliography
A La Grande Mosquee De Tunis," L'Afrique
Francaise (March 1927).
Al Muchrif, "La Reforme de l'Enseignement a la
Grande Mosque (Zitouna) de Tunis," Revue Des Etudes Islamiques, IV (1930).
Berque, J., "Ca et la dans les Debuts du Reformisme
Religieux au Maghred," Etudes D'Qrientisme Dediees a la Memoire de
Levi-Provencal,
II (Paris: Maisonneuve et Larose, 1962).
Regence De Tunis: Protectorat Francais (1914) (Tunis; Societe
Anonyme De L'lmprimerie Rapide, 1915).
Regence De Tunis: Protectorate Francais (1915) (Tunis;
Societe Anonyme De L'lmprimerie Rapide, 1916).
Servier, Andre, Le Peril De L'Avenir; Le Nationalism
Musulman en Egypt, en Tunisie, en Algerie 3rd ed. (Paris; Constantine, 1913).
Versine, "L'Enseignement Public," Regence De
Tunis: Conferences Sur Les Administrations Tunisiennes (Sousse, Tunisia;
Imprimerie Francaise, 1899).
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