Chapter 3
ZAYTUNA FROM KHAYR AD-DIN TO PROTECTORATE
The
improvement of the educational system in Tunisia was one of the goals of the
men who served in prime governmental offices during the period discussed in
this chapter, 1873-1881. Since Zaytuna was of central significance in terms of
Islamic studies, it became one of the chief targets for reform. The men who
were most successful in bringing about reform at Zaytuna were Sadiq Bey, the
sovereign of Tunisia, and Khayr Ad-Din, Sadiq's Prime Minister from 1873-1877.
Sadiq
Bey was the last of the Husainid Dynasty to reign before the establishment of the Protectorate.
Sadiq's reign, which began in 1859 following the death of his brother Muhammad,
was marked by debt, reform, and the establishment of the Protectorate. The part
which Sadiq played in bringing about reform in Tunisia and at Zaytuna is often
overlooked because of the dynamic abilities of Khayr Ad-Dln. However, Sadiq took
an active part in bringing about these reforms before, during, and after the ministry
of Khayr Ad-Din. For instance Sadiq had issued reform decrees affecting Zaytuna
in 1870, before Khayr Ad-Din became Prime Minister and in 1878 and 1880, after
Khayr Ad-Din was released as Prime Minister. Furthermore, before a great reform
of Zaytuna was issued on December 26, 1875 (this reform is discussed in this
chapter), Sadiq had "examined the lessons" and had supplied the
teachers for Zaytuna. He had also improved Zaytuna's educational system by organizing
a reform committee in 1875 under the direction of Khayr Ad-Dln; this committee
was composed of the Ulama and strived to establish the necessary conditions to
implement a reform decree affecting the education at Zaytuna (Ibn Ashur, 1967,
p. 96). The work of this committee resulted in the issuing of a major reform
decree on December 26, 1875.
Although
Sadiq manifested an interest in reform, the period during which Khayr Ad-Din
was his Prime Minister was one of particular importance. During that four year
period (1873-1877), Khayr Ad-Din was influential in having Sadiq Bey issue four
decrees which directly affected Zaytuna and two decrees which indirectly
affected that institution (one of the indirect decrees, the Decree of May 25,
1876 affected the sharia and the other, the Decree of January 13, 1875
established the Sadiqiyyah College).
Khayr Ad-Din, A Reformist And A Representative
of Modern-Islamic-Educational Thought
The
reformist ideas of Khayr Ad-Din brought change to Tunisia, Zaytuna, and
Tunisia's educational system. These ideas resulted from various factors. One of
these factors was Khayr Ad-Din's association with Qabadu and the Military
School of Bardo. Another factor was a result of Khayr Ad-Din's visits to Europe
and his observation of European administrative and educational procedures. A
third factor resulted from Khayr Ad-Din's personal thoughts on various
issues—he strongly believed that it was important for future political
officials to be exposed to a vast range of ideas, mainly Western ideas.
In
addition to various short trips Khayr Ad-Din made to Europe, he also made two
extended trips to Paris from 1853 to1856 and 1862 to 1867-1867 (Hanna and
Gardner, 1974, II p.p. 22-52). It was after his second extended trip to Paris
that he wrote a comprehensive work stating his ideas on reform (tanzimat) and
the progress of Europe in comparison to the progress of the Arab world. This
work, entitled Aqwam al-masalik li
ma'rifat ahwal al-mamalik [The Surest Path
to Knowledge regarding the Condition of Countries] is considered "a landmark in the transmission of knowledge about
the West." It is divided into two parts; the first part—which is discussed
in this dissertation--was called “Muqaddimah” (Introduction) and dealt with
Khayr Ad-Din's ideas on the conduct of the state and the improvement of the
educational and institutional systems of Tunisia (Abu-Lughod, 1963, pp. 79-80).
In the
Introduction of The Surest Path, Khayr Ad-Din made reference to recognized
Islamic scholars. This use of scholars was one of the ways he manifested his desire
to work with and receive the support of the Ulama in bringing about reform. In
selecting significant Islamic scholars to buttress his arguments for reform,
Khayr Ad-Din most likely was assisted by his Ulama friends, who included Mahmud
Qabadu, Ibn Abi ad-Diyaf, and Muhammad Bayram V (Brown, 1967, p. 43).
In
accomplishing educational reform, Khayr Ad-Din placed great responsibility on
the Ulama. He called for their support in securing a type of education which
would "improve" the circumstances of those involved "in a manner
that . . . [would] plant love of the homeland in their breast and make them
aware of the benefit" that they could receive (Brown, 1967, p.129).
One of Khayr
Ad-Din’s emphases was the advancement of Europe. After summarizing the
discoveries of Europe from the printing press to the gas lights, Khayr Ad-Din
stated that these discoveries didn't result because the Christians were
superior to the Muslims, but rather they resulted from the Christian countries
emphasizing the "sciences and arts
and facilitating their use." To this Khayr Ad-Din added his praise of the
organization of the French and suggested that this system be used as a model
for comparing other systems (Brown, 1967, pp.147-51). In urging Muslims to
adopt some of the advancements of Europe, Khayr Ad-Din strived to emphasize
that accepting these advancements was nothing less than repossessing that which
formally belonged to the Muslims.
The
effective organization of the schools in Europe seemed to be of great
importance to Khayr Ad-Din. In The Surest Path Khayr Ad-Din made particular
note of the European method of grouping the students into three categories:
"elementary, intermediate, and terminal." He further stated that the
students in these categories were able to progress from the simple to the more
complex. The existence of three categories in the European schools was most
likely one of the factors which influenced Khayr Ad-Din's development of a
three-level system of studies at Zaytuna by the Decree of December 26, 1875.
The
extensive subject matter that the students in these three levels studied was
also of interest to Khayr Ad-Din. Thus in The Surest Path he discussed the
various courses taught, the large range that the various levels possessed, and
the concern the European colleges had for the "study of divine knowledge,
legal procedure, composition and the like (Brown, 1967, pp.151-52)." In
doing this, Khayr Ad-Din probably hoped to encourage officials of Zaytuna and
other Islamic institutions to add a more extensive curriculum to the already
existing study of the Islamic sciences. As Prime Minister Khayr Ad-Din was
successful in establishing a secular and religious mixture by creating
Sadiqiyyah College, but he
was unsuccessful in promoting a similar mixture at Zaytuna in his
major reorganization decree of December 26, 1875. The reason behind the
apparent lack of success is not certain from the materials examined by the
present author. However this may have resulted because the conservative
factions of the reform commission which wrote the decree were
powerfully opposed to the mixture; or Khayr Ad-DTn may have felt that
this mixture was unimportant after the establishment of Sadiqiyyah College;
or he may have changed his ideas concerning this mixture between the time he
wrote Aqwam al-masalik li ma'rifat ahwal
al-mamalik and established the reform Decree of 1875.
Reform At Zaytuna
There
were various decrees issued between 1873 and 1881 which directly and indirectly
affected Zaytuna. The most extensive of these decrees was issued December 26,
1875; but the other reform proclamations demonstrate the extent that the
government was getting involved in the affairs of Zaytuna during this period of
time.
Decree of May 27, 1874
In 1874
Khayr Ad-Din instigated his first reform of Zaytuna. In this decree, which was
issued by Sadiq Bey on May 27, 1874, the method was outlined for nominating
Zaytuna professors. This specification was similar to that of the Decree of
1842 because it emphasized the position of the inspectors in establishing a
competitive examination for the selection of new professors. However, it
differed because it emphasized that the new professors were to be chosen by a
"majority vote" of the inspectors (Bompard, 1888, pp. 183-92). This
reemphasis of the inspectors' duties in selecting professors was a necessary
and important part of a number of decrees issued after Ahmad Bey established
the initial regulations for Zaytuna. The fact that this and other decrees were
issued to reemphasize the duties of the inspectors in selection of new
professors infers that the decrees were often disregarded or not fully
followed.
Decree of May 18, 1875
The
Decree of May 18, 1875 was oriented more toward Zaytuna’s library than to its
educational system. This decree dealt with the cataloging of books and the
business hours of the library. The proclamation was improved by another decree
issued February 8, 1905 affecting the use of and the admittance into the
library (Zeys, 1901, pp. 341-42). The decrees issued affecting the use of the
library are significant in this study because they demonstrate the increased
control that the government was beginning to exercise over all the affairs of
this Islamic institution. Before 1875 the library of Zaytuna seems to have been
relatively autonomous under the direction of the Zaytuna officials.
Decree of December 26, 1875
The
most complete reform issued during Khayr Ad-Din's ministry was the Decree of
December 26, 1875. This reform not only established regulations concerning the
administration and inspection of Zaytuna; but it also stated which books were
to be read and which subjects were to be taught. Although many of the points of
this new decree were similar to the Decree of 1842, each had its individual
characteristics. In comparing these two decrees, Plancke notes that the main
difference between them was that "Ahmad Bey was especially concerned with
the organization of the staff at the mosque (teachers, inspectors, etc.) and their
payment, whereas hayr ad-din [Khayr Ad-Din] cared about the contents and the
methods of the studies program (Plancke, 1970, pp. 362-63)."
The
Decree of December 26, 1875 was divided into 5 chapters and 67 articles. The
first chapter dealt with education. The second chapter defined the professional
role of the professors. The third chapter stated the various obligations of the
students. The fourth chapter presented the attributes of the inspectors. The
final chapter introduced regulations concerning the library.
The
intent of the decree was presented in its opening statement. It stated,
"We have decided to establish in a special regulation, the dispositions
relative to the organization of the studies at the Great Mosque." This
opening statement stresses the active role the government was taking in the
affairs of Zaytuna.
Article
1 of chapter 1 presented the following "corrected studies" for study
at Zaytuna: at-tafsir (interpretation of the Qur'an); al-hadith wa at-tawhld
(traditions and theology); as-siyar wa al-curud (conduct of Mohammad and
prosody); al-mustalah (agreement of the hadlth); usul al-fiqh (principles of
jurisprudence); al-fiqh wa ailm al-hay'ah (jurisprudence and astronomy); at-tasawwuf
(sufism; mysticism); al-rniqat (art of knowing the hours of prayer); an-nahw wa
as-sarf (grammar and syntax); al-ma’anl wa al-bayan (rhetoric); al-lugha wa al-'Idab
(the Arabic language and literature); al-fara'id (law of dealing with
inheritance); al-jughrafiyah wa at-tarlkh (geography and history); ar-rasm wa
al-khatt (drawing and calligraphy); al-qira'ah wa at-tajwld (lecture and
modulation of the Qur'an); al-man’iq wa al-handasa
(logic and geometry); 'adab ash-sharjcah (morals of the law); hisab
wa al-mlsahah (mathematics and geodesy or surveying) (Al Muchrif, 1930, IV p.
451).
In
Table 1 the number of courses offered in the areas of religious science, juridical
science, grammar, literature, logic, biography of important men in Islam,
arithmetic, and calligraphy is presented. It can be noted from this table that
out of the 435 lessons offered at Zaytuna, the largest number, 150 lessons,
dealt with Arabic grammar. Judicial science was the second subject emphasized.
It is of interest to note that although Zaytuna was originally established as a
center of Islamic studies, it offered more lectures in Arabic grammar than in either Islamic judicial or religious sciences by the 20th century.
Table 1 (Machuel, 1897, p. 451)
The Courses at Zaytuna According To the Decree of
1875
Number
of
General Category Courses Taught Courses Taught
Religious Sciences
at-tajwld - - -
- - - - - - - 22
al-qira'ah - - - - - - - - - - 10
al-hadlth - - - - - - - - - - 7
al-mustalah - - - - - - - - - - 1
al-tawhld - - -
- - - - - - - 29
The
Basis of Jurisprudence - 17
Judicial Science
Hanifite Legal
Rite - - - - - - 29
Malikite Legal
Rite - - - - - - 88
Discussion on
Succession - - 14
Grammar
The
Grammatical Syntax -
- - 149
Conjugation - - - - - - - - -
- - 1
Literature and Logic
Rhetoric and
Eloquence - - - 36
Literature and
Lexicography - 2
Metric - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
Logic - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 25
Miscellaneous
The History
and the Biography
Of Important Men in Islam - 1
Arithmetic - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
Calligraphy - - - - - - - - - - - - 2
Total Number of Courses
435
According
to this 1875 proclamation, the Zaytuna students were to be divided into three
categories (primary, secondary, and superior) and to study specified books
within each category. This division was probably a result of Khayr Ad-Din's
observance of similar organizational patterns in European schools.
Article
7 of chapter 2 stipulated that no one would be permitted to teach at Zaytuna
without the authorization of the inspectors. This action, coupled with that of
the Decree of 1842, brought an end to the century-old practice of a scholar
having free access to present lectures at Zaytuna as long as he had an
audience.
In
article 8 the method that the professors were to use in their lecturing at
Zaytuna was specified. This article stated:
The professor will explain, in beginning his
courses, the preliminary proposition upon which it is founded,
and then will pass gradually to the others going from the easiest to the most difficult;
he will notice, during his explanation, all the grammatical relations which are
able to send forth light on the senses of the proposition for explaining; he
will quote, if there is a place, the examples which will appear the most
appropriate, if the proposition is complex, he will strive for the recall with
a unique idea, and by classifying the parties in distinct principles. He will
follow the same method for the following propositions, if he explains a text.
But, if he avails himself also of a commentary, he will explain the text first
and will then read the commentary in the manner prescribed thereupon. He will
not pass from one proposition to another, until after he assures himself that
the students understand in a manner that they are able to respond with competence
and without haste on each of the points which are an object of the course. The
professor should avoid the excessive consession and the hurry in the deliverance
which hinders the students from comprehending that which he instructs to them
(Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 451-65).
Articles
9 to 21 further explained the duties of the professor. According to these
articles, the professor was not to attempt to explain those concepts which were
ambiguous. Rather he was to explain the information that was well founded on
truth. The teacher was to strive to put himself in the position of the student,
and in this way come to a better understanding and a better rendering of the
subjects he taught. Furthermore the professor was not to make a hasty delivery
which would hinder the students from following his lecture. The professor was
also instructed not to continue his lectures beyond the time when the students
were fatigued (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 451-65)."
Chapter
3 defined the duties of the students. In article 27 emphases was placed on the
memorization done by the students. This article demonstrated the influence of
the century-old Islamic approach to education by stressing that the students
would be responsible for the memorization of various texts studied.
Article
28 stressed the importance of order and attention by the students and teachers.
Students were to address their questions to the professor with the "modesty"
and "respect" that they, the students, had for those who were
"superior in science and dignity." In this statement the
superordinate position of the professors and the subordinate position of the
students were stressed. Concerning the conduct of the professors, the decree
stipulated that when a student's question was not in order, it was the duty of
the professor to be courteous in handling the situation and in making each student
observes the regulations for conduct in lectures.
In
article 30 the students were informed of their duty to maintain
"tranquility during the lesson," and not to disturb the lecture by
"futile" conversation, and to attribute the grandest attention to the
speech of the professors. Furthermore, the students were told that only the
professor was to answer questions addressed to him, unless he, the professor,
authorized a student to answer a particular question (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp.
451-65).
Chapter
4 of this decree concerned the duties of the inspectors. The inspectors, two
Shaykhs-al-lslam and two qadis, were to make sure that the requirements
stipulated in this decree were followed. If the inspectors found an
"impeachment" of one of the rules, they were to institute a plan so
that the person in error could be replaced.
Article
51 stated that when it seemed necessary to modify "one or several of the
dispositions of the present requirements" or to introduce some change in
the courses and/or the specified works studied, the government was to
"authorize these measures on the proposition of the inspectors of the
studies (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 451-65)."
This
decree concluded with specifications concerning the library. Though this decree
failed to add modern sciences to Zaytuna's curriculum, it was a major step in
bringing about educational reform which outlined an extensive plan for the
conduct of the educational affairs of Zaytuna.
Decree of January 22, 1876
On
January 22, 1876 Sadiq Bey issued another decree relating to the inspection of
Zaytuna. This document stated that because it was impossible for one government
official, the Prime Minister, to oversee the important administrative and
inspection duties at Zaytuna, another government official, the secretary of
state, would be appointed as the Director of Instruction. He and two Shaykh
professors would serve as inspectors of the educational procedures at Zaytuna.
These three appointees were also to determine the educational state of the
students at Zaytuna (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 466-68).”
Decree of May 25, 1876
The
Decree of May 25, 1876 wasn't directed toward Zaytuna, but it had an effect on
this institution because it concerned its administrative body. According to
this decree, the sharia, the judicial branch of Islam in Tunisia, was to be
composed of two chambers—the one Hanafite and the other Malikite. The presiding
officials were to be the Hanafite Shaykh-al-Islam and the Malikite Bash Mufti
(the same officials also held chief positions on the administrative body of
Zaytuna). The chambers were to have jurisdiction over all the territory of the Regency
(Fitoussi and Benazet, 1931, p. 353). In the early part of the 20th century,
the feasibility of these officials being effective in both roles was strongly attacked.
Decree of July 12, 1878
The
Decree of July 12, 1878 stated that it was the duty of Zaytuna graduates to
specify to the government the branch of instruction they were most capable of
teaching in the locality of their origin. This declaration was to make it
possible for the salary of these teachers to be figured equally (Bompard, 1888,
pp. 183-92). This decree also demonstrated the extent to which the government
was becoming involved in the affairs of Zaytuna.
Decree of March 24, 1880
On
March 24, 1880 another proclamation was issued by Sadiq Bey affecting the
library at the Great Mosque. According to this decree, no convicted thief could
enter into the library (Zeys, 1901, p. 349).
Zaytuna after December 26, 1875 decree: Although there were various decrees issued affecting Zaytuna during
the period under consideration in this chapter, the most significant of these
decrees was the Decree of December 26, 1875. This decree covered most of the functions
of Zaytuna. Although this decree was issued and enforced by the Bey, the
sovereign of Tunisia, and his Prime Minister Khayr Ad-Din, it was followed with
varying degrees of compliance and non-compliance.
One
year after the Decree of December 26, 1875 was issued, another decree was
issued (January 22, 1876) affecting the inspection of the educational affairs
at Zaytuna. The issuing of this second decree was likely a result of a weakness
in the inspection of the mosque which the government attempted to rectify by
appointing its own inspection team. The need for this 1876 supplement to the
Decree of December 26, 1875 supports the notion of at-Tahir Ibn Ashur that the
lack of the nizara to enforce the Decree of 1875 resulted in a decline in the quality
of education at Zaytuna (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 118) and a need for further
government control of this Islamic institution.
Although
the Decree of December 26, 1875 presented a plan of pedagogical procedures for
the Zaytuna professors, these procedures were followed by some, partly followed
by others, and ignored by many. Even the increasing of the inspection force in
1876 failed to solve the problems created by absent and non-adhering
professors. This lack of compliance was demonstrated by the professors
continuing to deliver their lectures at a rapid rate and making varying
attempts to have the majority of those attending their lectures fully
understand the technical points being introduced. These poor pedagogical
procedures resulted in many students having to study more than eight years at
Zaytuna before they were able to take the completion examination, the
examination of the tatwia. Furthermore when the students finally considered themselves
prepared to take this examination, only a few were able to pass it.
Ernest
Fallot included a brief description of the educational practices at Zaytuna in
1888 in his book Tunisie. Fallot stated that the lessons were about one
hour long. During this time the students would sit on mats on the floor as the
professor held a copy of the work being studied. The professor would either
read from the text himself, or would have one of the students do the reading.
After the reading an explanation was given on the material read. This
explanation was usually taken from one of the commentaries on the work being
studied. Fallot further noted that sometimes the professor would explain the
work himself without relying on a commentary. After this presentation the professor
would question his students to discover if they fully understood the lesson,
respond to their observations or demands for more explanation, and end his
lesson with allahu aalim (the Omniscient God) (Fallot,
1888, pp. 83-84); this statement implies the vast knowledge God has of all
truth.
From
this account of education at Zaytuna in 1880, it can be seen that some
professors were striving to help their students understand the lecture. But
being that Fallot notes that only "sometimes" a professor would add
his own explanation to the work being studied, it seems that only a few of the
professors were fully observing the teaching procedures mentioned In the Decree
of 1875. For according to article 8 of that decree, a professor was to help the
students understand a complex proposition by the use of a "unique
idea."
Another
part of the Decree of December 26, 1875 which was rarely, if at all, followed
was the right of the inspectors to bring about reform at Zaytuna. Although
article 51 of that decree stated that the inspectors could take the preliminary
actions to bring about reform at Zaytuna, these actions seem to have been
ignored even though professors, students, and newspapers sought them. This lack
of action resulted in the government having to initiate and introduce further reforms
affecting Zaytuna.
Not all
of the Decree of 1875 was ignored. The administrative and inspection bodies
were organized as stipulated in that decree and other supplementary decrees.
The books used were also as specified in the Decree of 1875 (La Tunisie:
Histoire et Description, 1896, II, pp. 213-18). Concerning the books used,
Machuel mentioned that often the professors would introduce additional and
difficult works for the brighter students (Machuel, 1897, pp. 385-98). In La
Tunisie; Histoire et Description, a book without a given author that was
written in 1895, another adherence to the 1875 decree is mentioned. It states
that, at that time, no one was free "to modify or introduce in their lessons"
new subjects without the consent of the administrative council; this points out
the active role the administrative council was taking in this aspect of
Zaytuna. The same book also specifies that although the students were free to choose
their own professors, the students were required to remain in one of the three
categories to which they were assigned: primary, secondary, or superior (La
Tunisie: Histoire et Description, 1896, II, pp. 213-18).
In a
1908 report to the "congres de l'Afrique Du Nord," Mohamed Lasram
commented on the lack of compliance to the Decree of 1875. He alluded to the
fact that many of the regulations issued by Khayr Ad-Din had been neither
attempted before nor after the establishment of the Protectorate (Lasram, 1908,
II p. 135). Thus after some 33 years, the reform decree issued by the sovereign
wasn't in full force. This lack of compliance to a proclamation of the Bey
demonstrates the strength that the conservative people of Zaytuna had in
maintaining the traditional character of this Islamic center of learning;
without support and power the Zaytuna people could not have disregarded even a
portion of the decree. This conservatism was one of the reasons Zaytuna was
slow in introducing and implementing needed reforms in both the 19th and 20th
centuries.
Ibn
Khaldun and the Decree of 1875: One might wonder what a 14th century historian
had to do with a decree issued in 1875, but in examining Ibn Khaldun’s writings
on education it is interesting to note that many of his ideas concerning
teaching methods were similar to those mentioned in the Decree of December 26,
1875. The similarities between these methods, which are illustrated in Table 2,
give the impression that Ibn Khaldun's writings were another factor which
influenced Khayr Ad-Din and the Reform Commission's writing of various sections
of the 1875 decree.
Table 2 (Al Muchrif, 1930, IV p. 451-65)
A Statement Comparison of Teaching Methods
According to Ibn Khaldun and the
Decree of December 26,187529
Preliminary Presentation
Ibn Khaldun: "At first, [the teacher] presents [the
student] with the principal problems within each chapter of a given
discipline."
Decree of 1875: "The Professor will explain in
beginning their courses, the preliminary proposition upon which it is founded .
. . ."
Progression of Lesson
Ibn Khaldun: "It should be
known that the teaching of scientific subjects to students is effective only when
it proceeds gradually and little by little."
Decree of 1875: "[the
professor] will pass gradually to other [propositions] from the easiest to the most
difficult. . . ."
Observance of Students
Ibn Khaldun: "In the course
. . . [of teaching], he [the Teacher] observes the student's intellectual potential
and his preparedness for understanding the material that will come his way until
the end of the discipline. . . ."
Decree of
1875:"[Each student was to be given]
a notebook on the which would be mentioned. . . the opinion of different professors
on his zeal and his intelligence, the date to which he will have to end the
study of such and such a work, the title of the works he will then need to
start."
Development Procedure
Ibn Khaldun:The students were to hear a "summary"
of the "principal problems" in their first study level, "commentaries
and explanations" in the second study level, and repeat of the information
studied in the third study level. In this program, the teacher was to leave
nothing "complicated, vague, or obscure, unexplained."
Decree of 1875:The students
were to study summaries in the first level, commentaries in the second level, and
classics in the third level.
Modern Muslim Education In Tunisia
One of
the factors with which Khayr Ad-Din and Sadiq Bey had to contend in order to
bring reform to the Tunisian educational system and Zaytuna was the emphasis on
religious education. For instance in 1874, a year after Khayr Ad-Din took office;
there were 1,239 students in Quranic schools. These students were preparing
themselves for further studies at Zaytuna or one of the other Great Mosques of
North Africa (Ganiage, 1968, pp. 372-73). Only a few, if any, of these students
were preparing themselves for an education in one of the European institutions
of higher education. While these Tunisian students were preparing themselves
for a traditional world which was becoming extinct, the French citizens in
Tunisia were preparing themselves for the modernizing state of Tunisia.
According to at-Tahir Ibn Ashur, these Zaytuna students were not only following
a medieval curriculum, but they were also required to take several years to
complete their education. This long period wasn't difficult for students who
lived in the middle ages because they had a lot of time to spend in obtaining
their education; but in the 19tn and 20th centuries, the students, according to
Ibn Ashur, needed to finish their schooling more rapidly in order to make a
living (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 115). This lack of preparation for the modern world
was probably one of the factors which inspired Khayr Ad-Din to create the
Sadiqiyyah College by a decree from the Bey on January 13, 1875.
Khayr Ad-Din and Sadiqiyyah College
Many
Zaytuna students, especially those of the more wealthy and prestigious families
of Tunisia, often attended Sadiqiyyah College. This section will present a
brief explanation of this college and the type of education Zaytuna and
non-Zaytuna students received there.
The
studies at this college were divided into three sections. In the first section,
the students studied the Qur'an, learned how to write, and studied several
subjects of interest to the Islamic world.
In the
second section, the students studied the judicial sciences and that which
pertained to these sciences. In the third section, the students studied foreign
languages and the science of reason. Through the use of this sectional
approach, Sadiqiyyah College officials hoped to mix the modern with the
traditional in an attempt to obtain valuable concepts from both.
Article
66 of the organizing Decree of 1875 created a bond between Zaytuna and
Sadiqiyyah. This article stated that the students who had completed the second
section of studies at Sadiqiyyah were free to complete their legal studies at
Zaytuna. In accomplishing this director was to "divide the students'
studies between Zaytuna and Sadiqiyyah (Zeys, 1901, pp. 339-41).
In
addition to foreign languages, the Sadiqiyyah students were exposed to
mathematics, physics, geography, and politics (“Rapport Sur L’Enseignement”,
1932, III pp. 21-22). Many of these subjects were similar to those at a French
Lycee and thus prepared these students for further studies in European
colleges—mainly French Colleges.
As a
result of these students' familiarity with foreign languages as well as Arabic,
they were able to translate many significant European works into Arabic and
thus provide the means for an educated person to increase his awareness of the
advancements of the European countries.
Sadiqiyyah's
effect on Zaytuna; As Zaytuna students attended Sadiqiyyah, they were able to
mix the traditional education with the modern education. This mixture caused
many Zaytuna students to become dissatisfied with the exclusion of modern
sciences at Zaytuna. This dissatisfaction was one of the factors which brought
about the creation of Khalduniyyah in 1896. Khalduniyyah was a secondary school
in which Zaytuna students studied modern languages and sciences.
Summary
The
improvement of the educational system of Tunisia and the educational approach
of Zaytuna was one of the central focuses of the government during the period
from 1873 to 1881. During those years the government issued seven decrees which
directly or indirectly affected Zaytuna. Two of the prime sponsors of these
reform actions were Sadiq Bey and his Prime Minister, Khayr Ad-Din. During the
reign of Sadiq Bey seven reform decrees were issued which affected Zaytuna;
four of these decrees were issued during Khayr Ad-Din's appointment as Prime
Minister. Khayr Ad-Dln was also one of the chief supporters of the major reform
of Zaytuna in December 26, 1875.
Khayr
Ad-Din had developed many of his reformist ideas as a result of two significant
social influences: his schooling at the Military School of Bardo and his visits
to Europe. After a second extended trip to Paris, which ended in 1867, Khayr
Ad-Din expressed many of his ideas in a book entitled Aqwam al-masalik li ma'rifat ahwal al-mamalik.
In
Khayr Ad-Din1s book he emphasized the importance of combining the religious
with the secular. Khayr Ad-Din accomplished this mixture with the creation of
Sadiqiyyah College, but he failed to obtain this combination at Zaytuna. This
lack of success could have resulted because there was powerful opposition from
the conservative factions of Tunisia to such a mixture or because Khayr Ad-Din
felt that he had obtained his goal by the establishment of Sadiqiyyah College
which freed Zaytuna to maintain its emphasis solely on Islam.
Although
the major reform decree that was issued on December 26, 1875 was weak in the
inclusion of modern sciences in Zaytuna's curriculum, it was an important step
in improving the administration of Zaytuna and increasing government
involvement there. In this decree, stipulations were made for the educational
and administrative functions of Zaytuna. This decree also defined both the
books and subjects which were to be studied. Though this decree made provisions
for dealing with those who failed to observe the regulations set forth in this
decree, these provisions were rarely followed and professors continued to be absent
from their lectures and failed to observe the regulations for teaching.
In 1875
a decree was issued which created Sadiqiyyah College, a secondary school which
presented both an Islamic and a modern science curriculum. Close connections
were made between this secondary school and Zaytuna from the beginning. The
organizational decree stated that students of Sadiqiyyah College who had
completed the second section of studies at Sadiqiyyah could further their legal
studies at Zaytuna. This connection was one of the factors which inspired
Zaytuna students to seek reform for Zaytuna so that more modern science courses
could be taught at that institution.
Bibliography
Bompard, Maurice Bompard, Legislation de la Tunisie (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1888).
Carl Brown,
The Surest Path (Cambridge, Mass.; Harvard University Press, 1967). Khair al-Din’s book Aqwam al-masalik li ma'rifat ahwal al-mamalik is also translated from Arabic into French
English. The French translation is entitled,
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Tunisienne, No. 12 (October, 1896). The English
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