The Reformation and Secularization of Zaytuna University is a PhD dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of Utah. The dissertation was in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor or Philosophy in Cultural Foundations of Education in the Department of Education Administration June 1975.
Sami A. Hanna PhD was Chairman of Supervisory Committee and the Supervisory Committee was composed of A. F. Faust PhD, Dorothy Schimmelphennie PhD, and Fred S. Buchanan PhD. Subhi Labib PhD was an original member of the Supervisory Committee, but before I finished writing my Dissertation he accepted a Professorship in Germany. Dr. Labib gave me many hours of reading and writing suggestions before he moved to Germany.
Historically, before the 19th century, Zaytuna was influenced in various ways by Tunisia's rulers. Zaytuna's role as a propagator of Islam began during the 8th century Arab conquest of North Africa. Its emphasis on the Malikite legal rite and its subsequent decline in personal inquiry seem to have had their roots in the 12th century al-Muwahhidun rule. It appears that the Ottoman rule, which began in the 16th century, influenced the establishment of an equal emphasis on the Hanafite and the Malikite legal rites at Zaytuna. This equal representation was manifested during most of the period of investigation and was perpetuated by major decrees which were issued affecting Zaytuna.
Various political factors influenced the issuing of three major and several other minor decrees which increased the number of Zaytuna's non-Islamic courses and the control of the government over Zaytuna's educational system. These factors and their effect on Zaytuna are as follows; (1) the government established Sadiqiyyah College in 1875 and Khalduniyyah School in 1896. The emphasis on modern sciences and European languages at these two schools motivated Muslim students to seek reform of Zaytuna's curriculum. (2) The French established the Protectorate government in 1881. During this Protectorate period, the French established several schools which presented a modern curriculum to Muslim youth. After this exposure these youth were further motivated to reform Zaytuna's century-old educational approach. Although the French usually stayed in the background in relation to reform at Zaytuna, it seems that during the 1890's various French officials attempted to change Zaytuna's curriculum in an effort to modernize this institution and in the 1930's they tried to influence Zaytuna's educational system in an attempt to hinder the nationalist movement. (3) World War I was another political event which promoted reform at Zaytuna. As a result of Tunisia's financial commitment in that war, habus funds (funds that were devoted to religious purposes) were greatly diminished. Since Zaytuna depended on these funds for is existence, it was forced to make compromises which weakened its autonomy.
During the 19th and 20th centuries, Zaytuna met with various pressures from students, newspapers, and Islamic reformists like Muhammad Abduh and at-Tahir Ibn Ashur to reform its century-old educational system. As a result of these pressures, the government organized reform commissions in 1910, 1924, and 1930. The efforts of these commissions resulted in the issuing of decrees which brought some, but crucial reform to the old Islamic mosque.
One of the significant social problems which motivated Zaytuna students to seek reform at Zaytuna was the lack of jobs in the 1920's and 1930's. In the modernizing state of Tunisia, the skills of Zaytuna graduates were decreasing in demand because of the specialized education of these graduates and their general inability to use French with the same proficiency as Arabic.
In this dissertation it is pointed out that reform and secularization came to Zaytuna in the 19th and 20th centuries, but this was more in terms of increasing government control than in modernizing the teaching procedures of this Islamic center of learning. By 1933 Zaytuna came under close supervision of the government; but it still had few courses offered in modern science and the European languages although these areas were important for those who participated in the affairs of the developing state of Tunisia.
Chapter 2
Zaytuna and Tunisian Education before Khayr Ad-Din (1878)
Zaytuna is one of the Great Mosques of North Africa. Since its initial construction in the 8th century, it has been one of the illuminators of the Islamic world. For centuries this mosque has been recognized as an institution of higher Islamic studies; and it has often been ranked second only to Al-Azhar in Cairo. Before the 19th century, Zaytuna's teaching and administrative methods had met only minor reforms. But with the coming of the 19th century, many factors worked together to influence and initiate reform of Zaytuna's educational and administrative procedures.
Structural History Of Zaytuna
Arab historians are vague about the exact date of the initial construction of Zaytuna Mosque. One theory states that Hasān ibn Al-Nu'mān began the construction of the Zaytuna Mosque following his capture of Carthage and his laying of the foundation for the city of Tunis in the 7th century (Julien, 1970, pp. 12-13). According to Bel Khodja, one of the supporters of this theory, this construction lasted from 698 (the time when Hassan laid the foundation for the city of Tunis) until 732 (Bel Khodja, 1943, PP. 233-38). This construction hypothesis isn't jointly held by Fikry, who states that there is only a slight indication that the mosque constructed by ibn al- ibn Al-Nu'mān was the same mosque which became known as jamia az-zaytuna (the Zaytuna Mosque).
Fikry discovered that the first mention of Zaytuna was supplied by al-Bakri, who reported that 'ubayed Allah ibn al-Habhab, an Umayyad governor, constructed this mosque in 732. Although Fikry notes that Idhari states the construction date was 734 (Fikry, 1952, pp. 28-29), Fikry, Diez, and Poinsset agree on the 732 construction date (Dies, 1936, P. 436, Fikry 1952, pp. 28-29, Poinssot, 1971, p. 212). When the mosque was constructed, Marcais notes that this newly constructed structure made a "most grand analogy with its contemporary Qayrawan (Marcais, 1937, p. 76)."
Following the initial construction of Zaytuna, several structural additions took place during the reign of the Aghlabid ruler Abu Ibrahim Ahmad who delighted "in virtue and building" (Julien, 1970, p. 47). The first of these additions began in 863. When Ahmad died in 864, the expansion of Zaytuna Mosque was continued and completed by his brother, Ziyadat Allah (Poinssot, 1971, p. 214).
Although all the constructions history of Zaytuna isn't known, Fikry points out that several events are preserved by various inscriptions on structures throughout the mosque. From such an inscription, one learns that one of the doors which lead to the room of prayer was opened in 1064 and that seventeen years later part of the north front of the mosque was opened. Inscriptions have established that in 1250 the room of ablution and a fountain were constructed at the mosque (Fikry, 1952, pp. 29-30)—it was at this period that Ali Mawla Abu Zakariyya further renovated the mosque (Poinssot, 1971, P. 214). Then in 1437, further renovation work also took place. From mosque inscriptions it can be learned that in 1583 the minbar (pulpit) of the mosque was reconstructed. Fikry further notes that in 1637 the front of the mosque, as it appears today, was built and that in 1763 the ceiling and some wooden sections of the mosque were restored (Fikry, 1952, pp. 30-31). The last recorded structural change was the addition of the present minaret, the tower attached to the side of the mosque from which Muslims are called to prayer, in 1894 (Marcais, 1937, p. 76).
Description of Zaytuna Mosque
The Great Mosque Az-Zaytuna is situated in the center of the city of Tunis. It is in an area known as the suqs, the traditional Arab market which is the center of all buying and selling in the medina (the old section of the city of Tunis). The suqs were constructed around the mosque to facilitate the attendance at prayer of those in the medina.
The mosque is in the shape of a parallelogram. Its width is around "52 meters" and its length is around "80 meters". The direction of the mosque is from north to south. Two grand doors of the mosque open to the perfume suq. Located in the court area of the mosque are the prayer mats. On these mats, the Muslims perform their prayers.
The grand door of entrance to the mosque is called bab-al-behur and it is "situated in front of the mihrab (Machuel, 1900, pp. 153-55), a prayer niche in the wall which indicates the direction of Makkah.
Most of the lessons at Zaytuna were conducted in the room of prayer. This room was very large and composed of a great number of columns. The mihrab is located in the east part of this room (Kraiem, 1973, II p. 164). During the lessons, a professor usually sat on a mat at the foot of one of the pillars. The students then gathered around the professor and repeated their lessons (P.H.X., 1891, p. 449).
Historical Developments In Tunisia and Their Influence On Zaytuna
Since Zaytuna's initial construction in the 8th century, it has functioned in the various roles of a jamia (mosque). Mosques, like Zaytuna, served as places of "worship", as "political and social" centers, as seats of "state and civil" administrations, as courts of justice, and as educational institutions (Atiya, 1917, p. 22). In addition to these functions, Zaytuna served to propagate the Islamic philosophies of two divisions of Islam: the Sunnites and most likely the Shiites. As an educational institution, Zaytuna was influenced by various political powers that ruled over Tunisia as well as the Ulama, a recognized body of Islamic religious leaders and teachers; the Ulama served mainly to perpetuate the conservative nature of this Islamic center of learning. The influence that the ruling powers and the Ulama had on this educational institution is discussed in this section.
Shiites and Sunnites
The Shiites were represented in Tunisia by the Fatimids, who ruled in Tunisia during the 10 century. The Shiite branch of Islam claimed that the right of interpretation first belonged to Allah (God), then to Muhammad (God's messenger), then to Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law), and then to the "legitimate descendants" of Ali (Farah, 1970, pp. 175-78). Although the Fatimids concentrated primarily around Qayrawan and relatively ignored Tunis (Brunschvig, 1934, p. 839), it is reasonable to assume that during the Fatimid's reign, Fatimid scholars traveled to Tunis and strived to propagate their Shiite dogmas at Zaytuna.
The Sunnites, who played an important role during most of Tunisia's history, were "loyal" to the "empowered Caliph." It was the Caliph, rather than the descendants of Muhammad, who the Sunnites claimed had the right to interpret the Holy books of Islam (the Qur'an, the Hadith, and the Sunna). In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Sunnites developed four branches of judicial interpretation. These four branches resulted from the codification of the Islamic law by four Islamic jurists: Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi'i, and Imam Ahmad (Maulana, 1936, pp. 100-03). The Hanafite legal rite, the codification of Imam Hanifa, who relied primarily on the Qur'an as his source of reference, and especially the Malikite legal rite, the codification of Imam Malik, who almost exclusively used the hadith found in Medina as his source of reference (Maulana, 1936, pp. 100-03) were most widely acknowledged in Tunisia. Julien notes that although Malikism was "hostile to rational interpretations," that it was "perfectly suited to the Berber mentality" and thus "triumphed . . . Ifriqiya /Tunisia/ and . . . throughout North Africa. . . (Julien, 1970, pp. 45-46)."
Effect of Tunisia's Rulers on Zaytuna
During Zaytuna's history, it was influenced in various ways by those who ruled in Tunisia. The Umayyads were first to influence Zaytuna by initially constructing the mosque for the propagation of Islam. The Hilalians, followers of Benu Hilal and 11th century rulers of Tunisia, most likely enhanced Zaytuna's standing by emphasizing the knowledge of Arabic, which had always been a chief source of study at Zaytuna. It was during the Almohad rule in Tunisia and the Almoravid rule in the Western part of North Africa in the 12th century that the Malikite legal rite grew in importance in Tunisia and at Zaytuna. Julien states that this legal rite "stifled intellectual effort and religious feeling" and "ruled out any allegorical interpretation of the Koran and any personal inquiry into the meaning of the law by reference
to sources (Julien, 1970, p. 88)." It appears that this emphasis on Malikism was one of the factors which contributed to the lack of personal inquiry at Zaytuna in the 19th century.
During a period of upheaval and decline for the Almohad rulers, Abu Zakariya Yahaya, the son of Sultan Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, the fourth Hafsid Aliph, "seceded in the western provinces and founded a new realm in Bougie and Constantine and environs." After this action split the Almohad Empire in half, Ibn Khaldun noted that the Hafsids "took possession of the capital in Tunis (Ibn Khaldun, 1958, II p. 116)." The creation of Tunis as the capital of Ifriqiya (the name given to Tunisia following the Arab conquest in the 8un century and the Arabic name for Africa) not only resulted in the transfer of the governing body from Qayrawan to Tunis, but it also resulted in a transfer of scholars from Qayrawan Mosque to Zaytuna Mosque.
It was during the Hafsid rule that the madrasas and the "Dominican House" were established in Tunisia. The madrasas, secondary schools which had previously been established" in the East, were founded by Abu Zakariya. The "Dominican House", which had courses in both Arabic and Hebrew, was established by the Christians (Julien, 1970, p. 143). Although these two educational approaches existed in Tunis, it seems that they had little effect on Zaytuna's traditional teaching methods and curriculum.
The 13th and the 14th centuries saw the attraction of scholars to lectures at Zaytuna (Brunschvig, 1934, p. 348). One of the reasons for this influx of scholars--in addition to moving the capital from Qayrawan to Tunis—was the immigration of Andalousian Muslims from Spain when it was conquered by the Christians. At this time the "eminent Grammarian" Imam Ali Ben Asfur and other scholars of note honored the new capital (Tunis) by presenting lectures at Zaytuna (Lasram, 1908, II p. 147). As a result of this Andalousian immigration, the methods of instruction at Zaytuna were influenced (Ibn Khaldun, 1958, III p. 302) to such a point that some have stated that in the 15th century the education given at Zaytuna was "identical with that professed at the Andalousian school (L’Enseignement Superieur Musulman-La Voix Du Tunisien, 1931).”
In the 16th century, Sinan Pasha brought the Ottoman troops to Tunisia and made it a Turkish province. At this time the Pasha, the Sultan's representative, was placed in charge of the affairs of Tunisia (Brunschvig, 1940, p. 853). However, because Tunisia was so far away from Constantinople, the Pasha was more of a sovereign than a representative. At this time the head of the Turkish troops was one known as the Dey and the commander of the troops in charge of collecting taxes and of administering the tribes was known as the Bey (Julien, 1970, pp. 303-04). For approximately a century this plurality of officials and officers continued. Then in 1705 Husain ibn Ali abolished the "plurality of titles and incorporated them under the title of Bey (Julien, 1970, 1970, pp. 304-05). In doing this Husain laid the foundations for the hereditary dynasty that ruled over Tunisia during the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries.
Husain ibn Ali and his son Ali Pasha took an interest in improving the educational approach at Zaytuna. Both these men, who held positions as Beys of Tunisia, appointed professors to Zaytuna’s staff in their attempt to improve the educational conditions at this institution (L’Enseignement Superieur Musulman-La Voix Du Tunisien, 1931).
During the time that the descendants of Husain ibn Ali were coming into governing significance, the Ulama, a body of specially recognized Islamic scholars, was gaining a monopoly on "all the intellectual and religious functions" in Tunisia. These Ulama, as a result of their appointment by the Bey to positions of mufti, qadi, shaykhs, teachers, notaries, and other "professional" categories, held high political, social, and financial positions in Tunisia (Kraiem, 1973, I p. 140). With this status, they were able to exercise control over the affairs of Zaytuna in maintaining its conservative nature.
In his dissertation on the Tunisian Ulama, Arnold Green pointed out that there were basically "two significant patterns" for those who were classed as Ulama in the biographical literature. The first pattern dealt with those who were "formally educated spokesmen for Islam." The second pattern manifested a "preference for lettered individuals who performed religious functions as opposed to those whose duties were military or administrative." Green further noted that while Zaytuna was only "one variety of educational training available to nineteenth century Tunisians, it was virtually the only avenue of access into the Ulama ranks (Green, 1973, pp. 31-32)."
Among those who were classed as Ulama and scholars, there were certain families who occupied positions of importance at Zaytuna. For instance during the 19th century, the Shaykh al-Islam was from either the Bayram or the Khodja families. The "Shaykh teachers of Zaytuna" were on the whole monopolized by the Bayrams, the ibn Ashurs, the Khodjas, the Baroudis, the Chaheds, and the Naifers (Kraiem, 1973, I p. 134). At various times, these families had both economic and social reasons for keeping Zaytuna from modernizing its curriculum and administrative structure. Thus they often worked as an active force to maintain the conservative nature of Zaytuna during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Islamic Education
Since Zaytuna is one of the centers of higher Islamic education in North Africa, it is of interest at this point to examine Islamic education in general in order to better understand where Zaytuna blends into the total picture. In doing this, the following points will be examined; the educational approach of Islamic centers of learning, the Islamic schools, and the subjects taught in the Islamic schools.
The Islamic educational system
The educational system which can be considered Islamic in nature is classed in this dissertation into two types or periods of time; the medieval period (approximately the 7th century to the opening of the 15th century) and the post-medieval period (approximately the 15th century to 1933, the ending point of this dissertation).
Medieval education: The medieval-education period is often looked upon with respect by those who study it. It was during this period that the Muslim countries were more advanced than the European countries in their establishment of universities and in their investigation of various sciences like medicine and astronomy.
During the medieval period the Arab historian Ibn Khaldun wrote Al-Muqaddimah. a book which gives insight into the type of educational system which existed in the 14th century Tunisia. In his work Ibn Khaldun divided the educational approach of his day into two categories, natural sciences and standard or transmitted sciences (Diez, 1936, p. 413). Natural science dealt with that which was "natural to man." Concerning this science, Ibn Khaldun further stated:
The first kind comprises the philosophical sciences. They are the ones with which man can become acquainted through the very nature of his ability to think and to whose objects, problems, arguments, and methods of instruction he is guided by his human perceptions, so that he is made aware of the distinction between what is correct and what is wrong in them by his own speculation and research, in as much as he is a thinking human being.
Into this first group was classed medicine, mathematics, astronomy and various natural sciences which brought recognition to the medieval-Arab world.
The second group of sciences dealt with the traditional, conventional sciences. These were the religious sciences of which Ibn Khaldun stated, "There is no place for the intellect . . . save that the intellect may be used in connection with them to relate problems of detail with basic principles." The basis of the traditional sciences was the Qur'an and the Sunna; the study of these two sources required the study of Arabic, the language in which they were written (Ibn Khaldun, 1958, II pp. 436-37).
In the 14th century, Ibn Khaldun noted that the study of the Qur'an was combined with the study of traditions, "basic scientific norms", and "certain scientific problems." At that time the emphasis of education was "giving" to the students "a good knowledge of the Qur'an and acquainting them with its various recensions and reading more than anything else."
In al-Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun expressed his concern about the quality of education at that time. He stated that the teachers were "ignorant" of what he considered an effective method of teaching. Concerning the teaching methods used in the 14 century, Ibn Khaldun stated:
They begin their instruction by confronting. They require him [the student] to concentrate on solving them [the difficult problems for which all the students weren't adequately prepared]. They [the teachers] think that that is experienced and correct teaching, and they make it the task of the student to comprehend and know such things. In actual fact, they (merely) confuse him by exposing him to the final results of a discipline at the beginning (of his studies) and before he is prepared to understand them (Ibn Khaldun, 1958, III pp. 292-93).
In Ibn Khaldun's work, he provided a plan for improving the educational approach of schools like Zaytuna. This plan included the teacher proceeding "little by little" in his presentation, reviewing the material three times with the aid of summaries, commentaries, and explanations, and after the third review, making sure that nothing was left "complicated, vague, or obscure (Ibn Khaldun, 1958, III pp. 292-93)”. Many of these improvements were not incorporated at Zaytuna in the 14th century. But it will be noted in the discussion of the Decree of December 26, 1875 that this decree seemed to have incorporated Ibn Khaldun's ideas.
The religious aims in the medieval period were to form Islamic scholars. These aims were based on; (1) the Qur'an as a "source of knowledge," (2) the existence of various "spiritual foundations of education," (3) the reinforced belief in ones "dependence upon God," (4) "sectarian morals", (5) the notion that secular subjects were subordinate to religious subjects, (6) the "equality of all men before God and man," (7) the notion that Muhammad holds a position of "supremacy" over "all other prophets," (8) the "belief in the six articles of Imam or Creed (God, angels, scripture, prophets, judgments, decrees)," and (9) the belief in and the practice of various religious duties; these included "confession of faith (there is no God but God), prayers, alms, fasting, and pilgrimage (Nakosteen, 1964, P. 41).
Some of these religious aims developed the person morally, but others worked to bring about a decline in the quality of Islamic education. For instance the heavy emphasis on the religious subjects over the non-religious subjects seems to have brought a decline in the number of secular subjects offered at Zaytuna. Thus courses like chemistry and, to a great extent, mathematics became extinct or decreased in emphasis in the post-medieval period. This decline in the non-religious sciences at Zaytuna was of particular note during the Spanish occupation period (Lasram, 1940, II p. 148).
Post-medieval education: It appears that during most of the post-medieval period, the secular aims of education were neglected. The prime emphasis of this period seemed to be Islam, Islamic jurisprudence, and Arabic, as a holy language. Such courses as chemistry and mathematics gave way to additional courses in syntax and recitation of the Qur'an. In the 19 and 20th century, the exchange of ideas which had manifested itself between the East and the West during the early days of Islam in North Africa was being limited. The channels of communication were further closed to investigation. One was not given the right to challenge the four jurists of Islam in their interpretation of the law. And often one was not able to challenge the teacher, but was only permitted to put that which fell from the teacher's lips to memory. To a great extent, the "pursuit of all knowledge, as the revelation of the nature of God," had been replaced by the pursuit of all knowledge which didn't give the appearance of destroying a student's faith. This new pursuit of Islamic education resulted in a loss of respect for the Islamic educational system among the European scholars who placed emphasis on, rather than Ignored, personal inquiry and investigation.
The Islamic schools
In the educational system of Tunisia, there were three main and significant types of Islamic schools: kuttab, madrasa, and institutions of higher education (the latter was represented by Qayrawan and Zaytuna). Each type of school played an important part in perpetuating the principles of Islam. At various periods of time, these educational institutions were not only used for the perpetuation of Islam, but also for the perpetuation of the particular philosophy of a Sunnite or Shiite conqueror.
Kuttab: The primary school for Muslim students was known as the kuttab (it was also known as the quranic school or maktab). There was little difference between the medieval and post-medieval kuttabs. In both periods of time, the studies centralized around the Qur'an, which was often used as their only source for learning "to read and to write (Arab Information Center, p. 243, 1966)." In addition to the study of the Qur'an, some kuttab students studied "poetry, horsemanship, swimming, famous proverbs, elementary arithmetic, elementary grammar, manners (adab), and penmanship. . . (Nakosteen, 1964, pp. 46-47)."
The 19th and 20th century students who entered Zaytuna had usually completed an education at one of the kuttabs. Only the best of these students continued their education at Zaytuna (Machuel, 1897, p. 392). Usually the students who graduated from the kuttabs were inadequately prepared for their studies at Zaytuna. One area of poor preparation was Arabic grammar (A La Djamaa Ez-Zaitouna-La Depeche Tunisienne, 1897, p. 392), one of the prime areas of study at Zaytuna. This lack of "intellectual baggage" often resulted in these students being confused by and unable to profit by their studies at Zaytuna (Kraiem, 1973. II p. 165). This lack of preparation of kuttab graduates seems to have contributed to the need for a longer period of study before many Zaytuna students could pass the examination of the tatwi’a (the examination for the Zaytuna diploma).
Madrasas: The madrasa was first established in Tunisia by Abu Zakariya in the 13th century and its role as a secondary educational institution was strongly emphasized by the Ottomans in the 16th century. It was during the Ottoman rule that the madrasas were used to propagate the Sunnite beliefs and the Turkish philosophies (Nakosteem, 1964, pp. 38-39). During the time these madrasas were in existence, many Tunisian students continued their studies there following graduation from the kuttabs and before going on to Zaytuna.
The madrasas in Tunisia ended their educational significance in the 19th century with the establishment of Sadiqiyyah College and various European secondary schools. In the later part of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century, the madrasas were used more for boarding Zaytuna students than for secondary schools. The improvement of the poor living conditions which came to exist in these establishments was one of the demands of the striking Zaytuna students in 1910.
Higher education (the university): For centuries Zaytuna has held a chief position among the Islamic institutions of higher education in North Africa—these institutions include the following: Zaytuna and Qayrawan in Tunisia, Al-Azhar in Egypt, and Qarawiyyxn in Morocco. It was at these institutions that students and professors united in their investigation of the transmitted and, on a limited level, the natural sciences. Furthermore, it was at these institutions of higher education that religious functionaries received their knowledge of Islamic principles, Islamic law, and the Arabic language.
Islamic curriculum
Nakosteen in presenting the courses which were taught during the Abbaside period (which included most of the period labeled "medieval" in this study) stated:
On the curriculum of Muslim higher education in the Abbasside period, the summation given by Abu Yahya Zakariyya is of interest. It included such legal subjects. . . as jurisprudence, exegesis, and tradition; literary studies. . . in philology syntax, rhetoric, prosody, composition, reading, and history; mathematics. . . including geometry, astronomy, arithmetic, algebra, music, politics, ethics, and domestic economy; rational. . . studies in logic, dialectic, dogmatic theology, metaphysics, natural science, medicine, and chemistry; and such miscellaneous subjects were approved as surveying, veterinary, agricvlture, phrenology, dream interpretation, astrology, and magic (Nakosteen, 1964, p, 53).
By the 19th century, many of the non-transmitted (secular) sciences were eliminated from the Zaytuna curriculum. Such courses as natural science, medicine, and chemistry had disappeared from the curriculum of Zaytuna by the time the decree of 1875 was issued by Sadiq Bey. Early 19th Century Reforms Of Zaytuna The lack of secular subjects in Zaytuna's curriculum was only one of the areas in which Zaytuna manifested a state of decline in the 19th century. Another area was in relation to the diligence of the professors. The professors were often absent from their lectures which resulted in a state of apathy on the part of the students. Furthermore there was no administrative body to regulate the affairs of Zaytuna in order to improve its declining state.
Because of the organizational and operational failings of Zaytuna, Ahmad Bey issued an organizational decree in 1842. In issuing this decree, Ahmad Bey was desirous of improving the wages of the teachers and in motivating them to be in attendance at their scheduled lectures. This decree became known as the charter of Zaytuna University and it was hung at one of the entrances to Zaytuna known as bab ashshifa (the door of healing) (Muhammed al-Khidr Husayn, 1971, p.23).
This proclamation introduced a pay system for the professors. According to this system, a professor was to have part of his salary deducted for days he was inexcusably absent. In this way Ahmad hoped to improve the attendance of the professors to their lectures. The revenues for paying the professors came from the bayt al-mal (the treasury house). The pay scale was as follows; the salary of the fifteen Malikite professors and the fifteen Hanafite professors was to be two "piastres" per day--it can be noted that in addition to specifying the pay scale for these professors, this decree also specified that there would be an equal number of fifteen professors from each legal rite. For this wage, the professors were to teach the science of their choice two times daily at the hour of their choice.
One of the significant contributions of the Decree of 1842 was that it established an inspection and administrative body to regulate the educational affairs of Zaytuna. According to this proclamation, two Shaykhs of Islam, one Hanafite and the other Malikite, were to be in charge of the affairs and the inspection of the education being presented at Zaytuna. For these duties, these shaykhs were to receive one hundred "piastres" per month. These shaykhs were to be assisted by two qadis (judges), one Hanafite and the other Malikite. For these services, the two qadis were to receive three "piastres" per day. One representative from either the two shaykhs or the two qadis was responsible for a daily check on the teaching at the mosque and for stimulating negligent professors to improve.
When there was a vacancy in a teaching position at Zaytuna, the four inspection shaykhs were to select the new professor by examination of the candidates' performances on a competitive examination (Al Muchrif, 1930, IV pp. 447-48).
Though the reform of Ahmad Bey in 1842 was aimed at motivating Zaytuna professors to attend their scheduled lectures, it appears that this decree wasn't fully effective. This lack of effectiveness is manifested by the issuing of further decrees in 1870 which were aimed at the negligent professors at Zaytuna.
Decree of September 27, 1870: In striving to motivate the Zaytuna professors to attend their lectures, the Decree of September 27, 1870 increased the salary of the teachers and inspectors. The inspectors were to receive a "sum equal to that which they received individually from the bayt al-mal according to the Decree of 1842. The professors of the first class were to receive 3 piastres a day above that which they received according to the Decree of 1842. The professors of the second class were to receive a 1 piastre per day increase.
In addition to the four inspectors established by the Decree of 1842, the new decree stated that the librarians were appointed watchmen of the professors' attendance at their lectures. For these duties, the librarians received a salary of 1 piastre a day in addition to that which they had previously received (Al Muchrif, 1930, IV pp. 449-50).
With this new proclamation the government reemphasized their efforts to improve the quality of education at Zaytuna. This issuing of a second decree affecting the professors points out the increased control that the government was beginning to exercise over Zaytuna.
Decree of October 26, 1870: Another reform decree affecting Zaytuna was issued October 26, 1870. It concerned the giving of money to substitute teachers. This decree stated, "The savings realized by the state on the salary of the titulary professors of the Grand Mosque [on account of deductions made from their pay on account of their absence from lectures], may, by way of discretion, . . . serve to remunerate the supernumerary professors named by the inspectors (Bompard, 1888, pp. 183-92)”.
Though this proclamation was designed to give the substitute teachers a salary of some sort and to penalize the absent professors, it was rarely carried out. The reason for this negligence was that the office of the state treasury was vacant during this period and thus the money was rarely paid (De Montety, 1951, p. 25).
Educational Development In Tunisia
In the 19th century, there were two educational developments which had direct or indirect affects on Zaytuna. These developments included the founding of the military school of Bardo in 1838 and the further establishment of non-Islamic schools in the 19th century. Both these developments will be discussed individually in this section.
Military school of Bardo
The Military School of Bardo had an indirect effect on Zaytuna through one of its students, Khayr Ad-Din, who as Prime Minister of Tunisia in the 1870's brought major reform to Zaytuna. At the Military School of Bardo, Khayr Ad-Din learned about the European approach to education and obtained ideas about the reformation of Islamic education from Shaykh Mahmoud Qabadu, a Zaytuna professor who taught at this school. The Military School of Bardo made such an impression on Khayr Ad-Din, that Khayr Ad-Din's name became "inseparable" with this "polytechnical school (Marty, 1935, p. 50)
This military school was established by Ahmad Bey in 1838. The school utilized the skills of European teachers as well as Zaytuna professors. In this way, Ahmad*s military school established a mixture between the religious and the secular. Colonel Aligaris, an Italian Colonel, was in charge of the secular and military aspects of this School (Drevet, 1922, pp. 21-22). Shaykh Mahmoud Qabadu seemed to be in charge of the religious aspects of this school (Marty, 1935, p 49)
This military school was "sort of a superior college," for it gave both a "profane and a modern and above all a military" education. Those who attended this school not only began to accept the military ideas presented by the European teachers, but they also gained a respect for the structure of its educational programs.
The Shaykh Mahmoud Qabadu taught lessons on the Arabic language and literature and worked closely with Calligaris in having the more adept students translate various important military works into Arabic (Marty, 1935, p. 49). During the time that Qabadu was at this military school, he had an influence on two future reformists of Tunisia; General Hussein and Khayr Ad-Din. Hussein had received Qabadu's ideas with enthusiasm (Zmerli, 1964, p. 77. These ideas most likely influenced Hussein's support of the 1875 creation of the Sadiqiyyah College, a secondary school' which presented both a religious and a secular curriculum. Khayr Ad-Din seemed deeply impressed by many of Qabldu's reformist ideas; these ideas appear to have been one of the factors which influenced Khayr Ad-Din not only to create Sadiqiyyah College, but also to reform Zaytuna in the 1870's (Demeerseman, 1956 No. 76, pp. 349-373), during the time he was Prime Minister in Tunisia.
Establishment of Non-Islamic Schools
In the 19th century; the French further established schools in Tunisia. This increase resulted in more Muslim students being introduced to modern subjects and the French language. As more Muslim students became aware of modern subjects and the information made available to them by their understanding of the French language, they were motivated to seek reform of Zaytuna so that this Islamic institution would include courses in modern sciences and the French language in its curriculum. This influence was most noticeable during the latter part of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th century.
The influence from French schools in Tunisia on Zaytuna began—although the "Dominican House" was in existence in the 13th century—in the 19th century with the establishment of a French school in 1845. At this time Abbe (Father) Bourgad, a French clergyman, founded a school for boys in Tunis (Rapport Sur L’Enseignement, 1923, III pp. 21-22). This institution was followed in 1859 by the creation of a primary school by the "Freres de la Doctrine Chretienne (Rapport Sur L’Enseignement, 1923, III pp. 21-22)." After the establishment of the Protectorate in 1881, various primary and secondary schools were established by the French in Tunisia.
Summary
The educational activities of Zaytuna Mosque have been influenced by the various rulers of Tunisia. It was the Umayyad governor 'Ubayed Allah ibn al-Habhab who initially constructed Zaytuna Mosque and began its role in the propagation of Islamic beliefs. During the 11th century the Hilalians, the followers of Benu Hilal, most likely increased the importance of Zaytuna by emphasizing the knowledge of Arabic, a prime focus of Zaytuna and all Islamic educational institutions. During the 13th century when the Almohads and the Almoravids ruled in North Africa, Zaytuna seems to have increased its emphasis on the Malikite legal rite—this emphasis appears to be one of the contributing factors to the decline of personal inquiry which existed in the 19th century. In the 13th century Zaytuna became the Grand Center of Islamic studies in Tunisia when Abu Zakariya Yahya moved the capital of Tunisia from Qayawan to Tunis; this action inspired the scholars to gather around Zaytuna, the Great Mosque in Tunis, rather than at Qayrawan to present their lectures. In the 16th century the Ottomans came into power inTunisia. These rulers established three important ruling positions: the Pasha, the Bey, and the Dey. These three positions were incorporated into one position, the Bey, in the 18th century by Husain ibn Ali. It was the ruling dynasty of Beys who descended from Husain ibn Ali in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries who issued decrees which brought reform to the educational system and approach of Zaytuna.
Before the 19th century, Zaytuna's teaching and administrative procedures had met only minor reforms. But with the coming of the 19th century, decrees were issued by the government which reformed these procedures. The first significant reform decree was issued by Ahmad Bey in 1842. This proclamation organized the administrative, inspection, and teaching bodies of Zaytuna. Two reform decrees were issued in 1870. The Decree of September 27, 1870 strived to motivate the Zaytuna professors to attend their lectures by increasing the salary of the teachers and the inspectors. The Decree of October 26, 1870 stated that substitute teachers could receive the pay of the professor they were replacing if the professor had no reason for his absence. Though these decrees were only minor reforms of Zaytuna's educational system, they manifested a growth in government involvement in the affairs of Zaytuna.
In the 19th century Zaytuna was affected by two educational developments. The first development was the establishment of a military school by Ahmed Bey. This school was the training ground of Khayr Ad-Din and others who held prime positions in the Tunisian government in the later part of the 19th century. It seems that this military school was one of the chief contributors to the development of Khayr Ad-Din's respect for the European educational approach and for his reformist ideas concerning Zaytuna--Shaykh Mahmoud Qabadu, a Zaytuna professor and a teacher at the Military School of Bardo, seems to have influenced the development of Khayr Ad-Din's reformist ideas concerning Zaytuna. The second development was the further establishment of European schools in Tunisia; the first of these schools was established by Father Bourgad in 1845. These European schools introduced the modern sciences and the European languages to the Muslim students who attended them. This introduction was one of the factors which produced dissatisfaction and reform demonstrations by those Muslim students who continued their studies at Zaytuna or who were interested in having Zaytuna combine the secular and religious subjects.
Bibliography
"A La Djamaa Ez-Zaitouna," La Depeche Tunisienne, November 9, 1896.
Al Muchrif, "La Reforme de l'Enseignement a la Grande Mosque
(Zitouna) de Tunis," Revue Des Etudes Islamiques, IV (1930)
Arab Information Center, Education in Tunisia (New York: Arab Information
Center, 1966)
Atiya, Aziz S. Atiya, "Early Islamic Institutions of Learning," Education in the
Islamic Middle East, ed. Sami A. Hanna and Augustus F. Faust (Salt
Lake City: University of Utah, 1973)
Bel Khodja, M'Hamed, "Les Lieux Musulmans De Priere A Tunis," Revue
Tunisienne (1943)
Bompard, Maurice Bompard, Legislation de la Tunisie (Paris: Ernest Leroux,
1888)
Brunschvig, R, "Tunis," The Encyclopedia of Islam IV (1934)
Brunschvig, Robert, La Berberie Orientale Sous Les Hafsides, I
(Paris; Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1940), p. 348.
Demeerseman. A, "un grand temoin des premieres idees modernisantes en
tunisie, " Revue de l'lnstitut des Belles Lettres Arabes a Tunis (IBLA)
no. 76 (1956), pp. 349-373.
De Montety, Henri, "Revolution Moderniste A L'Universite Ez-Zitouna,"
L'Afrique et L'Asie, No. 13 (1951)
Diez, Ernest Diez, "Masdjid," Encyclopedie De L'Islam, III (1936)
Drevet, R. Drevet, L'Armee Tunisienne Avant 1883 (Tunis: H. Weber and
Co., 1922)
Farah, Caesar E. Farah, Islam: Beliefs and Observances (Woodbury, New
York; Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 1970), pp. 175-78.
Fikry, Ahmed, "La Mosquee Az-Zaytouna A Tunis," Proceedings II (1952).
Green, Arnold Green, "The Tunisian Ulama, 1873-1915: Social Structure and
Response to Ideological Currents" (unpublished PhD dissertation,
University of Alifornia at Los Angeles, 1973)
Ibn Khaldun, trans., The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, by Franz Rosenthal, Vol I, II, III (New York: Pantheon Books, 1958)
Julien, Charles-Andre, trans., History of North Africa, by John Petric (New
York; Praeger Publishers, 1970).
Kraiem, Mustapha, La Tunisie Precoloniale II (Tunis: Societe Tunisienne de
Diffusion, 1973)
L,Enseignement Superieur Musulman," La Voix Du Tunisien, March 4, 1931.
Lasram Mohamed, "L'Enseignement Superieur Musulman: A La Mosquee De
L’Olivier, ou Grande Mosquee, A Tunis," Congres De D'Afrique du Nord,
tenuna a Paris du 6 au 10 octobre 1908, II.
Machuel, L, L'Enseignement Public En Tunisie (Tunis; Imprimerie Rapide,
1900)
Machuel, L., "L'Enseignement Musulman en Tunisie," Revue Tunisienne
(1897)
Marcais, George Marcais, Tunis et Kairouan (Paris; Librairie Renouard, H.
Laurens, 1937)
Marty, Paul Marty, Historique de la Mission Militaire Francaise en Tunisie
(1827-1882) (Tunis: Imprimerie J. Aloccio, 1935). p. 49.
Maulana, Muhammad Ali, The Religion of Islam (Cairo; National Publication
and Printing House, nd ), pp. 100-103.
Muhammad al-Khidr Husayn, Tunis wa Jamic Az-Zaytiina (Damascus:
1971)
Nakosteen, Mehdi Nakosteen, History of Islamic Origins of Western
Education (Boulder, Colorado; University of Colorado Press, 1964)
P.H.X., La Politique Francaise en Tunisie; le Protectorat et ses Origines
(1854-1891) (Paris: Plon, 1891)
Poinssot, Louis Poinssot, "Quelques Edifices Tunisiens Du Moyen Age et des
Temps Modernes," Les Cahiers De Tunisie XIX (1971)
"Rapport Sur L'Enseignement," Rapports De La Sous-Commission D'Etudes
Economiques, I I I (Tunis: Imprimerie J.C. Bonici, 1923)
Zmerli, S., Figures Tunisiennes: Les Precurseurs (Tunis: Editons Bouslams,
1964)
No comments:
Post a Comment