Zaytuna Mosque and University (Tunisia) Chapter 4: 1873 to 1881 AD Education Reformation and Secularization by Keith W. Martin PhD

Chapter 4

ZAYTUNA AND EARLY PROTECTORATE DAYS

The establishment of Tunisia as a French Protectorate in 1881 was one of the chief events which accelerated the modernization of Tunisia and the reformation of Zaytuna University. This period was marked by the increased introduction of "modern" ideas which helped elicit and apply pressure on the traditional factions of Tunisia to more fully conform to modernizing Tunisia. Teachers and students were encouraged to seek reform at Zaytuna that would increase the number of "modern science" subjects taught with the traditional curriculum of this Islamic institution. The state of Zaytuna following the establishment of the Protectorate is the central focus of this chapter. 

The Establishment Of The Protectorate 

As a result of the serious financial problems that Tunisia had acquired and France's desire to protect its occupation of Algeria, the French forced Sadiq Bey to sign a decree on May 12, 1881 establishing Tunisia as a Protectorate of France (Fitoussi and Benazet, 1931, Doc. No. 6). This action was not only an important political development, but it also brought great anxiety to the Muslim leaders who feared that the Protectorate government would bring changes that would affect their leadership status and the observance of Islamic principles (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 97).

The Bey during the Protectorate period 

After the Protectorate was established, the power of the Bey decreased. The Bey was still considered the political head of Tunisia on paper, but his power was weakened to a position of endorsement. 

Establishment of Director of Education 

One place where the French took an active part in the affairs of Tunisia was in education. This role increased as a result of the establishment of the Directorship of Public Education by a decree issued on May 6, 1883 (Zeys, 1901, p. 349). At that time, Machuel was appointed the first director.  

As Director of Public Education, Machuel introduced a French-type education (Ziadeh, 1969, pp. 29-30) which he hoped would benefit the total population (Rapport Sur L’Enseignement, 1932, pp. 21-22). Yet this type of education was only introduced on a limited basis, for the conservative factions at Zaytuna rebelled against the idea that the French could influence developments at Tunisia's grand center of Islamic studies. 

French schools: With the establishment of the Protectorate, the number of Muslim students in French schools increased. In these schools Arabic was placed in the background as an optional subject while French was the language of instruction. Even the tests were given in French (Amoretti, 1931). Although this use of French limited the number of Muslim students who attended these schools, those who did attend became exposed to European ideas. This exposure resulted in many of these students later seeking for reform of Zaytuna in order to make possible the study of modern ideas at this Islamic school. 

In 1884 two important schools were founded by the French—a normal school and "L'Ecole Superieure de Langue et Litterature Arabes." The normal school provided the necessary teachers for the Regency and helped the French implement their educational programs (Chatelain, 1937, p. 24). "L'Ecole Superieure de Langue et Litterature Arabes" gave the French an opportunity to learn the Arabic language (Chatelain, 1937, p. 269). In establishing these two schools, the French made great advancements in producing teachers to work in the increasing number of schools and in training people, who had an understanding of both the Arabic and the French languages and the Tunisian and the French cultures, to work in the government. 

By 1890 the French had established the Saint Charles school (later known as Lycee Carnot) and the Alaoui College. These were both secondary schools which introduced Muslim students to modern science courses. The Alaoui College satisfied the needs of young people who were not destined for education in the French system (La Depeche Tunisienne, Oct. 1, 1890). In the Saint Charles school, the Tunisians learned French with "remarkable ease (La Depeche Tunisienne, Aug. 6, 1890)" and prepared themselves for further education in the French educational system. 

While these European schools were developing in Tunisia, Zaytuna continued to emphasize a traditional curriculum. Because of Zaytuna's reluctance to reform, both Director of Education Machuel, and Resident-General Millet attacked Zaytuna's policy. 

Zaytuna And The Early Protectorate Period 

The unofficial policy of the French was to consider Zaytuna a private school (Micaud, 1964, p. 14). Concerning this position Machuel stated: ". . . all considerations urge us not to touch the collegiate edifice [the 'Zaituna' Mosque] which they have erected so painstakingly and of which they are so justly proud. Let us rather help them to enhance its prestige and to improve its quality. . . . (Green, 1973, p. 151)" Zaytuna represented the Islamic culture and the religious ties the Tunisians had with Islam. For the French to tamper with this institution would have meant an uprising of the people and perhaps a jihad (a holy war against the French). Because of this attitude on the part of French officials, it is interesting to note that when reforms were issued affecting Zaytuna, the French usually remained in the background. 

Although the French policy was generally to leave Zaytuna alone, Machuel often tried to exercise some control over the affairs of Zaytuna and to introduce reform there. Though Machuel was usually defeated, one success which he had was in obtaining his nominee, Muhammad Al-Qurtubi, to replace one of the deputy inspectors of education at the Great Mosque. This was accomplished even though Ahmad Ibn Al-Khuja, the Shaykh al-Islam, had desired that someone else be given those inspection duties (Green, 1973, p. 157). 

Zaytuna was placed under the Director of Education in 1883. At this time it was inspected by two representatives of Machuel; these two inspectors replaced the officials who had been responsible to the Prime Minister after the Decree of 1876. From 1883 to 1898, the affairs of Zaytuna were, to some extent, coordinated by the Director of Education assisted by two inspectors, one Hanafite and the other Malikite, chosen from among the first class professors at Zaytuna (La Voix Tunisien, April 6, 1937). 

Decrees affecting Zaytuna 

The decrees which were issued during the period from 1881 to 1895 were minor when compared to the Decree of December 26, 1875. But these decrees manifested a further attempt to improve the condition and increase governmental control of Zaytuna. 

Decree of February 13. 1883: The Decree of February 13, 1883 affected the salary of Zaytuna professors who taught at Sadiqiyyah College. This decree stated that Zaytuna professors who taught classes at Sadiqiyyah would not have money subtracted from their regular salary for the time that they were involved with the examinations at Sadiqiyyah (Zeys, 1901, pp. 339-41). With the issuing of this decree, Zaytuna professors were given more liberty to associate themselves with Sadiqiyyah College. Thus professors and students of Zaytuna were able to become better acquainted with the modern ideas presented at Sadiqiyyah. This increased relationship between Zaytuna professors and Sadiqiyyah was another of the factors which brought efforts to reform Zaytuna. 

Decree of November 4, 1884: On November 4, 1884 another decree was issued affecting Zaytuna. This decree dealt with the exams at Zaytuna. It reemphasized the fact, as previously stated by the Decree of 1875 that exams were only to be given at Dar-al-Bey (Bompard, 1888, pp. 183-92). 

Decree of February 22, 1885: The Decree of February 22, 1885 placed the library of Sadiqiyyah under the direction of the Shaykh inspectors of the Great Mosque (Zeys, 1901, p. 350). This action demonstrated a further connection being made between Zaytuna and Sadiqiyyah. It also introduced more responsibility for the Shaykh-inspectors of Zaytuna. This increased responsibility made it more difficult for these men to be fully effective in their duties as administrators at Zaytuna, administrators of the sharia, and after the issuing of this decree, administrators of the Sadiqiyyah library. 

Decree of June 13, 1892: On June 13, 1892 another decree was issued affecting the hiring of Zaytuna professors. This proclamation stated that in the event of a vacancy at the Great Mosque, the position of second class professor could only be given after a competitive examination which was to be taken in the presence of the inspectors of the Zaytuna studies. Only those who had obtained the grade of mutawwaa and had two years of teaching experience at the Great Mosque would be able to compete on the examination. The vacancy was to be announced by the Prime Minister at least 15 days before the examination. 

This procedure of admitting mutawwaan by competitive examinations to become second class professors was, according to this decree, only to be effective for a period of 5 years. After that time those admitted would have to take another type of examination further explained in the decree. This new examination was to consist of both an oral and a written test on the subject matter taught at Zaytuna. The candidate for this examination was also to prepare a lesson which dealt with some subject that was taught at Zaytuna. The new examination was to be announced by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister was also to decide the date and the subjects to be covered on the examination. The test was to be held in the government building for 3 days. For a mutawwaa to qualify for this new test, he needed to have two years of teaching experience at Zaytuna. Not only could a mutawwaa become a second class professor by means of a competitive examination, but also a second class professor could compete for a vacant position in the ranks of the first class professors by the same procedure. 

This decree also explained the tatwia, the Zaytuna diploma (one who possessed this diploma was considered a mutawwaa). This diploma was only to be given to students after a special examination. This examination consisted of both a written and an oral test on various subjects taught at the Great Mosque. This test was also to be announced by the Prime Minister, who was charged with determining the date of the examination, its conditions, and the subjects which it would cover. This test was also to be given in the government building.  

This decree was a major move in improving the examinations for the professors at Zaytuna. Before this time the inspectors determined the person's qualifications only by his performance on an oral examination.

Now they also had to give a written examination. With these two examinations and the rating received on each, the inspectors were able to better evaluate the qualifications of the person applying to become a professor (Al Muchrif, 1930, IV pp. 470-71). 

The giving of a written examination to both those applying for teaching positions and students working for the tatwia was a new idea for Zaytuna. The oral display of one’s memory was the prime focus before this time. Now these students and the mutawwaan had to be able to write what they had memorized. To some of these test takers, this was more difficult because writing hadn't been emphasized to the extent that the medieval-memory approach had. The students didn't take notes on the class lectures; they strived to memorize them. Thus the addition of a written section on the test would eliminate all those who hadn't obtained a working knowledge of the written language, but had a memorized oration of everything the professor had presented in class. Ironically enough this handicap brought about by the students' inability to write was a result of the inadequate educational system which relied heavily on the test. 

Another interesting thing is that the Prime Minister was given the responsibility for the examination. It was the Prime Minister, not the Zaytuna officials, who was to determine the test's date, its conditions, and the subjects which it was to cover. This further demonstrates the active role that the occupational government was taking in regulating the affairs of Zaytuna. 

Decree of July 8, 1894: The Decree of July 8, 1894 dealt with an addition to the works available for study at Zaytuna. This decree simply added Al Moula Meskin on Hanafite jurisprudence to the works already being studied (Zeys, 1901, p. 366). This decree was necessary because, according to the Decree of December 26, 1875, any additions to the works already listed in the Decree of 1875 were to be recommended by the inspectors and approved by the government. In this instance, the addition had to be instigated by decree. 

General affairs at Zaytuna (1881-1895) 

From the accounts on Zaytuna in La Tunisie; Histoire et Description, a general understanding of the affairs at Zaytuna during the 1890's can be obtained. According to this account there were 830 students at Zaytuna; 195 of these students were from Tunis; 149 came from the region of the Sahel, the coastal region; approximately 141 came from Cape Bon, and the other 345 students came from various areas of the Regency. As expected the students from Tunis, the capital city of Tunisia, were generally the most industrious. These students, the elite of Tunisian youth, were children of functionaries, magistrates, notaries, and merchants. The ages of these students varied from 16 to 30 and it wasn't unusual to see a man sitting in one of the circles with grey hair. 

In 1895 there were 31 professors of the first class at Zaytuna. Out of these professors, 16 were of the Malikite rite and 15 were of the Hanafite rite. There were also 13 professors of the second class and 67 mutawwaa. Interestingly enough the mutawwaan received no pay for their regular services, a typical Middle Eastern pattern. 

The various professors gave a minimum of two lessons which were given at Zaytuna each day out of the approximately 270. Often the same subjects were taught by several professors using the same works. During this time the most popular courses dealt with law, Arabic grammar, and Islamic theology. 

The lectures began at sunrise and were held continuously until evening. Sometimes one could observe 15 professors sitting on mats with their backs against one of the columns in the room of prayer teaching their circle of students. 

According to La Tunisie: Histoire et Description, a student usually studied at Zaytuna a minimum of 7 years before presenting himself for the tatwia examination. The tatwia was like a license for these students. With this diploma they were qualified to apply for a professorship at Zaytuna or for certain public positions. These public positions included that of "clerks, notaries, employees in the administration, etc. . . ." 

The tatwia examination was very difficult, and few were successful in passing it. For instance in 1895 there were 66 students who submitted themselves for the tatwia examination. Only 4 of these 66 students, or approximately 6%, were successful in passing that test (La Tunisie, 1896, II pp. 213-18. Some of the difficulty in passing the examination was a result of the inspectors’ severe evaluations of the students' performances on the test. In an educational system in which memory played an important role, a test based on memory could be very difficult. A person taking such an examination could make only some minor word exchanges or deletions and have his fate left to the grace of the inspectors, who usually held to high standards of performance. The addition of a written section to this examination by the Decree of 1892 was to eliminate favoritism by the inspectors, but because these students were usually poorly prepared for a written test, having a written section was usually a hindrance rather than an aid. 

In addition to the regular classes which the students took at Zaytuna, many of the students studied French. This language was usually studied at the time nearest to the examination conducted by the Director of Education. This examination was given to those students who wished to be exempt from military service. Though these Zaytuna students studied French, they usually found themselves unprepared for the severe examination which covered subjects with which they were not familiar. 

While the students from outside the Tunis area were studying at Zaytuna, they were lodged in madrasas. There were about 22 of these establishments which offered about 450 rooms for these students. The conditions in these places were poor and often very unsanitary.21 These unsatisfactory conditions were another factor which motivated students to seek reform in 1910. 

Summary 

During the period from 1881 to 1895, the Protectorate government was established by the French in Tunisia and the French began to take an active role in the educational affairs of that country. In 1883, two years after this establishment, the Directorship of Public Education was founded with Machuel as the first Director. At this time Zaytuna was placed under Machuel's direction, but because of opposition from the conservative factions of Tunisia, he had little influence over the affairs of that institution. 

With the establishment of the Protectorate government, the French increased the number of schools they sponsored in Tunisia. It was during this period that the Saint Charles school and the Alaoui College was established. In these two schools both Muslim youth and French youth were exposed to modern sciences and the European languages. This exposure was one of the factors which motivated these Muslim youth to seek reform of the traditional education at Zaytuna. The French further established a normal school for training teachers and "L'Ecole Superieure de Langue et Litterature Arabes" for teaching French youth Arabic in preparation for governmental work. The establishment of these latter two schools made it harder for Zaytuna students to get government jobs because they were less prepared than those who were proficient in both Arabic and French. 

There were five minor decrees issued during the 14 year period investigated in this chapter. A decree issued on February 13, 1883 made allowances for Zaytuna professors to be involved at Sadiqiyyah without a loss of pay. This decree further opened the way for Zaytuna professors to become better aware of the advantages of a secular and religious education. The Decree of November 4, 1884 restated the location of the Zaytuna examination at Par al-Bey. The Decree of February 22, 1885 placed the Sadiqiyyah library under the Shaykh inspectors of Zaytuna. This action added increased responsibility to these inspectors. This multiple responsibility came under attack in later years because it was difficult for these shaykhs to fully be effective in all their duties. The Decree of June 13, 1892 strived to improve the testing of the mutawwaan for future positions as professors. One significant statement of this decree declared that the tests would be oral and written. Before this time oral testing was the method usually followed. This new decree placed an additional hardship on Zaytuna students who were poor in writing. The Decree of July 8, 1894 added Al Moula Meskin on Hanafite jurisprudence to the works being studied at Zaytuna. 

By the 1890's the students at Zaytuna were also studying French. This study was mainly motivated by the examination given by the Director of Education for exemption from military service. However, even with this study of French, these students often found themselves unprepared to answer many of the questions on the examination. 

Bibliography 

Al Muchrif, "La Reforme de l'Enseignement a la Grande Mosque (Zitouna) de   

       Tunis," Revue Des Etudes Islamiques, IV (1930). 

Amoretti, Jeani, "II Faudrait Organiser L'Enseignement en Tunisie," La Voix Du

       Tunisien (April 21, 1931). 

Bompard, Maurice, Legislation de la Tunisie (Paris; Ernest Leroux, 1888).  

Chatelain, Yves Chatelain, La Vie Litteraire et Intellectuelle en Tunisie de 1900 a

       1937 (Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1937). 

Fitoussi, Elie and Benazet, Aristide, L'Etat Tunisien et La Protectorat Francais

       (Paris; Librairie Arthur Rousseau, Rousseau and Co., 1931), Annex XLIII,

       Document No. 6. 

Ibn Ashur, Muhammad Aj-Tahir, a laisa as-subh bi-qarlb? (Tunis; Maison

       Tunisienne de l'Edition, 1967). 

La Depeche Tunisienne, "Le College Aloui et L'Enseignement

       Professionel," (October 1, 1890). 

La Depeche Tunisienne, "L'Enseignement et la Colonisation," (August 6, 1890). 

La Tunisie; Histoire et Pescription, II (Paris: Berger-Levrault et Co., 1896). 

La Voix Tunisien "L'Esprit Nouveau A L'Universite De La Grande Mosquee,"

       (April 6, 1937). 

Micaud, Charles A. and Moore, Clement Henry, Tunisia; The Politics of

       Modernization (New York; Frederick A. Praeger, 1964). 

Green, Arnold, "The Tunisian Ulama, 1873-1915: Social Structure and Response

       to Ideological Currents" (unpublished PhD dissertation, University of

       California at Los Angeles, 1973), p. 151 cites Louis Machuel,

       Correspondence to La Revue Pedagogique, II (1885.  

"Rapport Sur L'Enseignement," Rapports De La Sous-Commission D'Etudes

       Economiques, III (Tunis: Imprimerie J.C. Bonici, 1932). 

Zeys, Paul, Code Annote De La Tunisie; Recueil De Tous Les Documents

       Composant La Legislation Ecrite De Ce Pays Au 1st Janvier 1901 (Nancy;

       Imprimerie Berger-Levrault et 6ie, 1901). 

Ziadeh, Nicola A., Origins of Nationalism in Tunisia (Beirut; Lebanon Bookshop,

       1969).

Zaytuna Mosque and University (Tunisia) Chapter 3: 1873 to 1881 AD Education Reformation and Secularization by Keith W. Martin PhD

Chapter 3

ZAYTUNA FROM KHAYR AD-DIN TO PROTECTORATE 

The improvement of the educational system in Tunisia was one of the goals of the men who served in prime governmental offices during the period discussed in this chapter, 1873-1881. Since Zaytuna was of central significance in terms of Islamic studies, it became one of the chief targets for reform. The men who were most successful in bringing about reform at Zaytuna were Sadiq Bey, the sovereign of Tunisia, and Khayr Ad-Din, Sadiq's Prime Minister from 1873-1877.

Sadiq Bey was the last of the Husainid Dynasty to reign before the establishment of the Protectorate. Sadiq's reign, which began in 1859 following the death of his brother Muhammad, was marked by debt, reform, and the establishment of the Protectorate. The part which Sadiq played in bringing about reform in Tunisia and at Zaytuna is often overlooked because of the dynamic abilities of Khayr Ad-Dln. However, Sadiq took an active part in bringing about these reforms before, during, and after the ministry of Khayr Ad-Din. For instance Sadiq had issued reform decrees affecting Zaytuna in 1870, before Khayr Ad-Din became Prime Minister and in 1878 and 1880, after Khayr Ad-Din was released as Prime Minister. Furthermore, before a great reform of Zaytuna was issued on December 26, 1875 (this reform is discussed in this chapter), Sadiq had "examined the lessons" and had supplied the teachers for Zaytuna. He had also improved Zaytuna's educational system by organizing a reform committee in 1875 under the direction of Khayr Ad-Dln; this committee was composed of the Ulama and strived to establish the necessary conditions to implement a reform decree affecting the education at Zaytuna (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 96). The work of this committee resulted in the issuing of a major reform decree on December 26, 1875. 

Although Sadiq manifested an interest in reform, the period during which Khayr Ad-Din was his Prime Minister was one of particular importance. During that four year period (1873-1877), Khayr Ad-Din was influential in having Sadiq Bey issue four decrees which directly affected Zaytuna and two decrees which indirectly affected that institution (one of the indirect decrees, the Decree of May 25, 1876 affected the sharia and the other, the Decree of January 13, 1875 established the Sadiqiyyah College). 

Khayr Ad-Din, A Reformist And A Representative

of Modern-Islamic-Educational Thought 

The reformist ideas of Khayr Ad-Din brought change to Tunisia, Zaytuna, and Tunisia's educational system. These ideas resulted from various factors. One of these factors was Khayr Ad-Din's association with Qabadu and the Military School of Bardo. Another factor was a result of Khayr Ad-Din's visits to Europe and his observation of European administrative and educational procedures. A third factor resulted from Khayr Ad-Din's personal thoughts on various issues—he strongly believed that it was important for future political officials to be exposed to a vast range of ideas, mainly Western ideas. 

In addition to various short trips Khayr Ad-Din made to Europe, he also made two extended trips to Paris from 1853 to1856 and 1862 to 1867-1867 (Hanna and Gardner, 1974, II p.p. 22-52). It was after his second extended trip to Paris that he wrote a comprehensive work stating his ideas on reform (tanzimat) and the progress of Europe in comparison to the progress of the Arab world. This work, entitled Aqwam al-masalik li ma'rifat ahwal al-mamalik [The Surest Path to Knowledge regarding the Condition of Countries] is considered "a landmark in the transmission of knowledge about the West." It is divided into two parts; the first part—which is discussed in this dissertation--was called “Muqaddimah” (Introduction) and dealt with Khayr Ad-Din's ideas on the conduct of the state and the improvement of the educational and institutional systems of Tunisia (Abu-Lughod, 1963, pp. 79-80). 

In the Introduction of The Surest Path, Khayr Ad-Din made reference to recognized Islamic scholars. This use of scholars was one of the ways he manifested his desire to work with and receive the support of the Ulama in bringing about reform. In selecting significant Islamic scholars to buttress his arguments for reform, Khayr Ad-Din most likely was assisted by his Ulama friends, who included Mahmud Qabadu, Ibn Abi ad-Diyaf, and Muhammad Bayram V (Brown, 1967, p. 43). 

In accomplishing educational reform, Khayr Ad-Din placed great responsibility on the Ulama. He called for their support in securing a type of education which would "improve" the circumstances of those involved "in a manner that . . . [would] plant love of the homeland in their breast and make them aware of the benefit" that they could receive (Brown, 1967, p.129). 

One of Khayr Ad-Din’s emphases was the advancement of Europe. After summarizing the discoveries of Europe from the printing press to the gas lights, Khayr Ad-Din stated that these discoveries didn't result because the Christians were superior to the Muslims, but rather they resulted from the Christian countries emphasizing the  "sciences and arts and facilitating their use." To this Khayr Ad-Din added his praise of the organization of the French and suggested that this system be used as a model for comparing other systems (Brown, 1967, pp.147-51). In urging Muslims to adopt some of the advancements of Europe, Khayr Ad-Din strived to emphasize that accepting these advancements was nothing less than repossessing that which formally belonged to the Muslims. 

The effective organization of the schools in Europe seemed to be of great importance to Khayr Ad-Din. In The Surest Path Khayr Ad-Din made particular note of the European method of grouping the students into three categories: "elementary, intermediate, and terminal." He further stated that the students in these categories were able to progress from the simple to the more complex. The existence of three categories in the European schools was most likely one of the factors which influenced Khayr Ad-Din's development of a three-level system of studies at Zaytuna by the Decree of December 26, 1875. 

The extensive subject matter that the students in these three levels studied was also of interest to Khayr Ad-Din. Thus in The Surest Path he discussed the various courses taught, the large range that the various levels possessed, and the concern the European colleges had for the "study of divine knowledge, legal procedure, composition and the like (Brown, 1967, pp.151-52)." In doing this, Khayr Ad-Din probably hoped to encourage officials of Zaytuna and other Islamic institutions to add a more extensive curriculum to the already existing study of the Islamic sciences. As Prime Minister Khayr Ad-Din was successful in establishing a secular and religious mixture by creating Sadiqiyyah College, but he was unsuccessful in promoting a similar mixture at Zaytuna in his major reorganization decree of December 26, 1875. The reason behind the apparent lack of success is not certain from the materials examined by the present author. However this may have resulted because the conservative factions of the reform commission which wrote the decree were powerfully opposed to the mixture; or Khayr Ad-DTn may have felt that this mixture was unimportant after the establishment of Sadiqiyyah College; or he may have changed his ideas concerning this mixture between the time he wrote Aqwam al-masalik li ma'rifat ahwal al-mamalik and established the reform Decree of 1875. 

Reform At Zaytuna 

There were various decrees issued between 1873 and 1881 which directly and indirectly affected Zaytuna. The most extensive of these decrees was issued December 26, 1875; but the other reform proclamations demonstrate the extent that the government was getting involved in the affairs of Zaytuna during this period of time. 

Decree of May 27, 1874

In 1874 Khayr Ad-Din instigated his first reform of Zaytuna. In this decree, which was issued by Sadiq Bey on May 27, 1874, the method was outlined for nominating Zaytuna professors. This specification was similar to that of the Decree of 1842 because it emphasized the position of the inspectors in establishing a competitive examination for the selection of new professors. However, it differed because it emphasized that the new professors were to be chosen by a "majority vote" of the inspectors (Bompard, 1888, pp. 183-92). This reemphasis of the inspectors' duties in selecting professors was a necessary and important part of a number of decrees issued after Ahmad Bey established the initial regulations for Zaytuna. The fact that this and other decrees were issued to reemphasize the duties of the inspectors in selection of new professors infers that the decrees were often disregarded or not fully followed. 

Decree of May 18, 1875

The Decree of May 18, 1875 was oriented more toward Zaytuna’s library than to its educational system. This decree dealt with the cataloging of books and the business hours of the library. The proclamation was improved by another decree issued February 8, 1905 affecting the use of and the admittance into the library (Zeys, 1901, pp. 341-42). The decrees issued affecting the use of the library are significant in this study because they demonstrate the increased control that the government was beginning to exercise over all the affairs of this Islamic institution. Before 1875 the library of Zaytuna seems to have been relatively autonomous under the direction of the Zaytuna officials. 

Decree of December 26, 1875

The most complete reform issued during Khayr Ad-Din's ministry was the Decree of December 26, 1875. This reform not only established regulations concerning the administration and inspection of Zaytuna; but it also stated which books were to be read and which subjects were to be taught. Although many of the points of this new decree were similar to the Decree of 1842, each had its individual characteristics. In comparing these two decrees, Plancke notes that the main difference between them was that "Ahmad Bey was especially concerned with the organization of the staff at the mosque (teachers, inspectors, etc.) and their payment, whereas hayr ad-din [Khayr Ad-Din] cared about the contents and the methods of the studies program (Plancke, 1970, pp. 362-63)." 

The Decree of December 26, 1875 was divided into 5 chapters and 67 articles. The first chapter dealt with education. The second chapter defined the professional role of the professors. The third chapter stated the various obligations of the students. The fourth chapter presented the attributes of the inspectors. The final chapter introduced regulations concerning the library. 

The intent of the decree was presented in its opening statement. It stated, "We have decided to establish in a special regulation, the dispositions relative to the organization of the studies at the Great Mosque." This opening statement stresses the active role the government was taking in the affairs of Zaytuna. 

Article 1 of chapter 1 presented the following "corrected studies" for study at Zaytuna: at-tafsir (interpretation of the Qur'an); al-hadith wa at-tawhld (traditions and theology); as-siyar wa al-curud (conduct of Mohammad and prosody); al-mustalah (agreement of the hadlth); usul al-fiqh (principles of jurisprudence); al-fiqh wa ailm al-hay'ah (jurisprudence and astronomy); at-tasawwuf (sufism; mysticism); al-rniqat (art of knowing the hours of prayer); an-nahw wa as-sarf (grammar and syntax); al-ma’anl wa al-bayan (rhetoric); al-lugha wa al-'Idab (the Arabic language and literature); al-fara'id (law of dealing with inheritance); al-jughrafiyah wa at-tarlkh (geography and history); ar-rasm wa al-khatt (drawing and calligraphy); al-qira'ah wa at-tajwld (lecture and modulation of the Qur'an); al-man’iq wa al-handasa (logic and geometry); 'adab ash-sharjcah (morals of the law); hisab wa al-mlsahah (mathematics and geodesy or surveying) (Al Muchrif, 1930, IV p. 451).  

In Table 1 the number of courses offered in the areas of religious science, juridical science, grammar, literature, logic, biography of important men in Islam, arithmetic, and calligraphy is presented. It can be noted from this table that out of the 435 lessons offered at Zaytuna, the largest number, 150 lessons, dealt with Arabic grammar. Judicial science was the second subject emphasized. It is of interest to note that although Zaytuna was originally established as a center of Islamic studies, it offered more lectures in Arabic grammar than in either Islamic judicial or religious sciences by the 20^th century.

Table 1 (Machuel, 1897, p. 451)

The Courses at Zaytuna According To the Decree of 1875 

                                                                                               Number of

General Category                Courses Taught                    Courses Taught 

Religious Sciences

at-tajwld      - - - - - - - - - -                   22

al-qira'ah     - - - - - - - - - -                   10

al-hadlth      - - - - - - - - - -                     7

al-mustalah - - - - - - - - - -                     1

al-tawhld      - - - - - - - - - -                   29

The Basis of Jurisprudence  -                   17 

Judicial Science

Hanifite Legal Rite  - - - - - -                   29

Malikite Legal Rite  - - - - - -                   88

Discussion on Succession  - -                  14 

Grammar

                                The Grammatical Syntax - - -                 149

                                Conjugation - - - - - - - - - - -                     1

Literature and Logic 

Rhetoric and Eloquence - - -                   36

Literature and Lexicography -                   2

Metric   - - - - - - - - - - - - - -                   1

Logic    - - - - - - - - - - - - - -                  25 

Miscellaneous 

The History and the Biography

   Of Important Men in Islam -                   1         

Arithmetic  - - - - - - - - - - - -                   1

Calligraphy - - - - - - - - - - - -                   2

  

Total Number of Courses                                                        435

According to this 1875 proclamation, the Zaytuna students were to be divided into three categories (primary, secondary, and superior) and to study specified books within each category. This division was probably a result of Khayr Ad-Din's observance of similar organizational patterns in European schools. 

Article 7 of chapter 2 stipulated that no one would be permitted to teach at Zaytuna without the authorization of the inspectors. This action, coupled with that of the Decree of 1842, brought an end to the century-old practice of a scholar having free access to present lectures at Zaytuna as long as he had an audience. 

In article 8 the method that the professors were to use in their lecturing at Zaytuna was specified. This article stated: 

The professor will explain, in beginning his courses, the preliminary proposition upon which it is founded, and then will pass gradually to the others going from the easiest to the most difficult; he will notice, during his explanation, all the grammatical relations which are able to send forth light on the senses of the proposition for explaining; he will quote, if there is a place, the examples which will appear the most appropriate, if the proposition is complex, he will strive for the recall with a unique idea, and by classifying the parties in distinct principles. He will follow the same method for the following propositions, if he explains a text. But, if he avails himself also of a commentary, he will explain the text first and will then read the commentary in the manner prescribed thereupon. He will not pass from one proposition to another, until after he assures himself that the students understand in a manner that they are able to respond with competence and without haste on each of the points which are an object of the course. The professor should avoid the excessive consession and the hurry in the deliverance which hinders the students from comprehending that which he instructs to them (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 451-65). 

Articles 9 to 21 further explained the duties of the professor. According to these articles, the professor was not to attempt to explain those concepts which were ambiguous. Rather he was to explain the information that was well founded on truth. The teacher was to strive to put himself in the position of the student, and in this way come to a better understanding and a better rendering of the subjects he taught. Furthermore the professor was not to make a hasty delivery which would hinder the students from following his lecture. The professor was also instructed not to continue his lectures beyond the time when the students were fatigued (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 451-65)." 

Chapter 3 defined the duties of the students. In article 27 emphases was placed on the memorization done by the students. This article demonstrated the influence of the century-old Islamic approach to education by stressing that the students would be responsible for the memorization of various texts studied. 

Article 28 stressed the importance of order and attention by the students and teachers. Students were to address their questions to the professor with the "modesty" and "respect" that they, the students, had for those who were "superior in science and dignity." In this statement the superordinate position of the professors and the subordinate position of the students were stressed. Concerning the conduct of the professors, the decree stipulated that when a student's question was not in order, it was the duty of the professor to be courteous in handling the situation and in making each student observes the regulations for conduct in lectures. 

In article 30 the students were informed of their duty to maintain "tranquility during the lesson," and not to disturb the lecture by "futile" conversation, and to attribute the grandest attention to the speech of the professors. Furthermore, the students were told that only the professor was to answer questions addressed to him, unless he, the professor, authorized a student to answer a particular question (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 451-65). 

Chapter 4 of this decree concerned the duties of the inspectors. The inspectors, two Shaykhs-al-lslam and two qadis, were to make sure that the requirements stipulated in this decree were followed. If the inspectors found an "impeachment" of one of the rules, they were to institute a plan so that the person in error could be replaced.  

Article 51 stated that when it seemed necessary to modify "one or several of the dispositions of the present requirements" or to introduce some change in the courses and/or the specified works studied, the government was to "authorize these measures on the proposition of the inspectors of the studies (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 451-65)." 

This decree concluded with specifications concerning the library. Though this decree failed to add modern sciences to Zaytuna's curriculum, it was a major step in bringing about educational reform which outlined an extensive plan for the conduct of the educational affairs of Zaytuna. 

Decree of January 22, 1876 

On January 22, 1876 Sadiq Bey issued another decree relating to the inspection of Zaytuna. This document stated that because it was impossible for one government official, the Prime Minister, to oversee the important administrative and inspection duties at Zaytuna, another government official, the secretary of state, would be appointed as the Director of Instruction. He and two Shaykh professors would serve as inspectors of the educational procedures at Zaytuna. These three appointees were also to determine the educational state of the students at Zaytuna (Al Muchrif, 1930, pp. 466-68).” 

Decree of May 25, 1876 

The Decree of May 25, 1876 wasn't directed toward Zaytuna, but it had an effect on this institution because it concerned its administrative body. According to this decree, the sharia, the judicial branch of Islam in Tunisia, was to be composed of two chambers—the one Hanafite and the other Malikite. The presiding officials were to be the Hanafite Shaykh-al-Islam and the Malikite Bash Mufti (the same officials also held chief positions on the administrative body of Zaytuna). The chambers were to have jurisdiction over all the territory of the Regency (Fitoussi and Benazet, 1931, p. 353). In the early part of the 20th century, the feasibility of these officials being effective in both roles was strongly attacked. 

Decree of July 12, 1878 

The Decree of July 12, 1878 stated that it was the duty of Zaytuna graduates to specify to the government the branch of instruction they were most capable of teaching in the locality of their origin. This declaration was to make it possible for the salary of these teachers to be figured equally (Bompard, 1888, pp. 183-92). This decree also demonstrated the extent to which the government was becoming involved in the affairs of Zaytuna. 

Decree of March 24, 1880

On March 24, 1880 another proclamation was issued by Sadiq Bey affecting the library at the Great Mosque. According to this decree, no convicted thief could enter into the library (Zeys, 1901, p. 349). 

Zaytuna after December 26, 1875 decree: Although there were various decrees issued affecting Zaytuna during the period under consideration in this chapter, the most significant of these decrees was the Decree of December 26, 1875. This decree covered most of the functions of Zaytuna. Although this decree was issued and enforced by the Bey, the sovereign of Tunisia, and his Prime Minister Khayr Ad-Din, it was followed with varying degrees of compliance and non-compliance. 

One year after the Decree of December 26, 1875 was issued, another decree was issued (January 22, 1876) affecting the inspection of the educational affairs at Zaytuna. The issuing of this second decree was likely a result of a weakness in the inspection of the mosque which the government attempted to rectify by appointing its own inspection team. The need for this 1876 supplement to the Decree of December 26, 1875 supports the notion of at-Tahir Ibn Ashur that the lack of the nizara to enforce the Decree of 1875 resulted in a decline in the quality of education at Zaytuna (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 118) and a need for further government control of this Islamic institution. 

Although the Decree of December 26, 1875 presented a plan of pedagogical procedures for the Zaytuna professors, these procedures were followed by some, partly followed by others, and ignored by many. Even the increasing of the inspection force in 1876 failed to solve the problems created by absent and non-adhering professors. This lack of compliance was demonstrated by the professors continuing to deliver their lectures at a rapid rate and making varying attempts to have the majority of those attending their lectures fully understand the technical points being introduced. These poor pedagogical procedures resulted in many students having to study more than eight years at Zaytuna before they were able to take the completion examination, the examination of the tatwia. Furthermore when the students finally considered themselves prepared to take this examination, only a few were able to pass it. 

Ernest Fallot included a brief description of the educational practices at Zaytuna in 1888 in his book Tunisie. Fallot stated that the lessons were about one hour long. During this time the students would sit on mats on the floor as the professor held a copy of the work being studied. The professor would either read from the text himself, or would have one of the students do the reading. After the reading an explanation was given on the material read. This explanation was usually taken from one of the commentaries on the work being studied. Fallot further noted that sometimes the professor would explain the work himself without relying on a commentary. After this presentation the professor would question his students to discover if they fully understood the lesson, respond to their observations or demands for more explanation, and end his lesson with allahu aalim (the Omniscient God) (Fallot, 1888, pp. 83-84); this statement implies the vast knowledge God has of all truth. 

From this account of education at Zaytuna in 1880, it can be seen that some professors were striving to help their students understand the lecture. But being that Fallot notes that only "sometimes" a professor would add his own explanation to the work being studied, it seems that only a few of the professors were fully observing the teaching procedures mentioned In the Decree of 1875. For according to article 8 of that decree, a professor was to help the students understand a complex proposition by the use of a "unique idea." 

Another part of the Decree of December 26, 1875 which was rarely, if at all, followed was the right of the inspectors to bring about reform at Zaytuna. Although article 51 of that decree stated that the inspectors could take the preliminary actions to bring about reform at Zaytuna, these actions seem to have been ignored even though professors, students, and newspapers sought them. This lack of action resulted in the government having to initiate and introduce further reforms affecting Zaytuna. 

Not all of the Decree of 1875 was ignored. The administrative and inspection bodies were organized as stipulated in that decree and other supplementary decrees. The books used were also as specified in the Decree of 1875 (La Tunisie: Histoire et Description, 1896, II, pp. 213-18). Concerning the books used, Machuel mentioned that often the professors would introduce additional and difficult works for the brighter students (Machuel, 1897, pp. 385-98). In La Tunisie; Histoire et Description, a book without a given author that was written in 1895, another adherence to the 1875 decree is mentioned. It states that, at that time, no one was free "to modify or introduce in their lessons" new subjects without the consent of the administrative council; this points out the active role the administrative council was taking in this aspect of Zaytuna. The same book also specifies that although the students were free to choose their own professors, the students were required to remain in one of the three categories to which they were assigned: primary, secondary, or superior (La Tunisie: Histoire et Description, 1896, II, pp. 213-18). 

In a 1908 report to the "congres de l'Afrique Du Nord," Mohamed Lasram commented on the lack of compliance to the Decree of 1875. He alluded to the fact that many of the regulations issued by Khayr Ad-Din had been neither attempted before nor after the establishment of the Protectorate (Lasram, 1908, II p. 135). Thus after some 33 years, the reform decree issued by the sovereign wasn't in full force. This lack of compliance to a proclamation of the Bey demonstrates the strength that the conservative people of Zaytuna had in maintaining the traditional character of this Islamic center of learning; without support and power the Zaytuna people could not have disregarded even a portion of the decree. This conservatism was one of the reasons Zaytuna was slow in introducing and implementing needed reforms in both the 19th and 20th centuries.

Ibn Khaldun and the Decree of 1875: One might wonder what a 14th century historian had to do with a decree issued in 1875, but in examining Ibn Khaldun’s writings on education it is interesting to note that many of his ideas concerning teaching methods were similar to those mentioned in the Decree of December 26, 1875. The similarities between these methods, which are illustrated in Table 2, give the impression that Ibn Khaldun's writings were another factor which influenced Khayr Ad-Din and the Reform Commission's writing of various sections of the 1875 decree.

Table 2 (Al Muchrif, 1930, IV p. 451-65)

A Statement Comparison of Teaching Methods

According to Ibn Khaldun and the

Decree of December 26,187529 

Preliminary Presentation 

Ibn Khaldun: "At first, [the teacher] presents [the student] with the principal problems within each chapter of a given discipline." 

    Decree of 1875:      "The Professor will explain in beginning their courses, the preliminary proposition upon which it is founded . . . ." 

Progression of Lesson 

Ibn Khaldun: "It should be known that the teaching of scientific subjects to students is effective only when it proceeds gradually and little by little." 

Decree of 1875:      "[the professor] will pass gradually to other [propositions] from the easiest to the most difficult. . . ." 

Observance of Students 

Ibn Khaldun: "In the course . . . [of teaching], he [the Teacher] observes the student's intellectual potential and his preparedness for understanding the material that will come his way until the end of the discipline. . . ." 

Decree of 1875:"[Each student was to be given] a notebook on the which would be mentioned. . . the opinion of different professors on his zeal and his intelligence, the date to which he will have to end the study of such and such a work, the title of the works he will then need to start." 

Development Procedure 

Ibn Khaldun:The students were to hear a "summary" of the "principal problems" in their first study level, "commentaries and explanations" in the second study level, and repeat of the information studied in the third study level. In this program, the teacher was to leave nothing "complicated, vague, or obscure, unexplained." 

Decree of 1875:The students were to study summaries in the first level, commentaries in the second level, and classics in the third level. 

Modern Muslim Education In Tunisia 

One of the factors with which Khayr Ad-Din and Sadiq Bey had to contend in order to bring reform to the Tunisian educational system and Zaytuna was the emphasis on religious education. For instance in 1874, a year after Khayr Ad-Din took office; there were 1,239 students in Quranic schools. These students were preparing themselves for further studies at Zaytuna or one of the other Great Mosques of North Africa (Ganiage, 1968, pp. 372-73). Only a few, if any, of these students were preparing themselves for an education in one of the European institutions of higher education. While these Tunisian students were preparing themselves for a traditional world which was becoming extinct, the French citizens in Tunisia were preparing themselves for the modernizing state of Tunisia. According to at-Tahir Ibn Ashur, these Zaytuna students were not only following a medieval curriculum, but they were also required to take several years to complete their education. This long period wasn't difficult for students who lived in the middle ages because they had a lot of time to spend in obtaining their education; but in the 19tn and 20th centuries, the students, according to Ibn Ashur, needed to finish their schooling more rapidly in order to make a living (Ibn Ashur, 1967, p. 115). This lack of preparation for the modern world was probably one of the factors which inspired Khayr Ad-Din to create the Sadiqiyyah College by a decree from the Bey on January 13, 1875. 

Khayr Ad-Din and Sadiqiyyah College 

Many Zaytuna students, especially those of the more wealthy and prestigious families of Tunisia, often attended Sadiqiyyah College. This section will present a brief explanation of this college and the type of education Zaytuna and non-Zaytuna students received there. 

The studies at this college were divided into three sections. In the first section, the students studied the Qur'an, learned how to write, and studied several subjects of interest to the Islamic world. 

In the second section, the students studied the judicial sciences and that which pertained to these sciences. In the third section, the students studied foreign languages and the science of reason. Through the use of this sectional approach, Sadiqiyyah College officials hoped to mix the modern with the traditional in an attempt to obtain valuable concepts from both. 

Article 66 of the organizing Decree of 1875 created a bond between Zaytuna and Sadiqiyyah. This article stated that the students who had completed the second section of studies at Sadiqiyyah were free to complete their legal studies at Zaytuna. In accomplishing this director was to "divide the students' studies between Zaytuna and Sadiqiyyah (Zeys, 1901, pp. 339-41). 

In addition to foreign languages, the Sadiqiyyah students were exposed to mathematics, physics, geography, and politics (“Rapport Sur L’Enseignement”, 1932, III pp. 21-22). Many of these subjects were similar to those at a French Lycee and thus prepared these students for further studies in European colleges—mainly French Colleges.  

As a result of these students' familiarity with foreign languages as well as Arabic, they were able to translate many significant European works into Arabic and thus provide the means for an educated person to increase his awareness of the advancements of the European countries. 

Sadiqiyyah's effect on Zaytuna; As Zaytuna students attended Sadiqiyyah, they were able to mix the traditional education with the modern education. This mixture caused many Zaytuna students to become dissatisfied with the exclusion of modern sciences at Zaytuna. This dissatisfaction was one of the factors which brought about the creation of Khalduniyyah in 1896. Khalduniyyah was a secondary school in which Zaytuna students studied modern languages and sciences. 

Summary 

The improvement of the educational system of Tunisia and the educational approach of Zaytuna was one of the central focuses of the government during the period from 1873 to 1881. During those years the government issued seven decrees which directly or indirectly affected Zaytuna. Two of the prime sponsors of these reform actions were Sadiq Bey and his Prime Minister, Khayr Ad-Din. During the reign of Sadiq Bey seven reform decrees were issued which affected Zaytuna; four of these decrees were issued during Khayr Ad-Din's appointment as Prime Minister. Khayr Ad-Dln was also one of the chief supporters of the major reform of Zaytuna in December 26, 1875. 

Khayr Ad-Din had developed many of his reformist ideas as a result of two significant social influences: his schooling at the Military School of Bardo and his visits to Europe. After a second extended trip to Paris, which ended in 1867, Khayr Ad-Din expressed many of his ideas in a book entitled Aqwam al-masalik li ma'rifat ahwal al-mamalik. 

In Khayr Ad-Din1s book he emphasized the importance of combining the religious with the secular. Khayr Ad-Din accomplished this mixture with the creation of Sadiqiyyah College, but he failed to obtain this combination at Zaytuna. This lack of success could have resulted because there was powerful opposition from the conservative factions of Tunisia to such a mixture or because Khayr Ad-Din felt that he had obtained his goal by the establishment of Sadiqiyyah College which freed Zaytuna to maintain its emphasis solely on Islam. 

Although the major reform decree that was issued on December 26, 1875 was weak in the inclusion of modern sciences in Zaytuna's curriculum, it was an important step in improving the administration of Zaytuna and increasing government involvement there. In this decree, stipulations were made for the educational and administrative functions of Zaytuna. This decree also defined both the books and subjects which were to be studied. Though this decree made provisions for dealing with those who failed to observe the regulations set forth in this decree, these provisions were rarely followed and professors continued to be absent from their lectures and failed to observe the regulations for teaching. 

In 1875 a decree was issued which created Sadiqiyyah College, a secondary school which presented both an Islamic and a modern science curriculum. Close connections were made between this secondary school and Zaytuna from the beginning. The organizational decree stated that students of Sadiqiyyah College who had completed the second section of studies at Sadiqiyyah could further their legal studies at Zaytuna. This connection was one of the factors which inspired Zaytuna students to seek reform for Zaytuna so that more modern science courses could be taught at that institution. 

Bibliography 

Bompard, Maurice Bompard, Legislation de la Tunisie (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1888). 

Carl Brown, The Surest Path (Cambridge, Mass.; Harvard University Press, 1967). Khair al-Din’s book  Aqwam al-masalik li ma'rifat ahwal al-mamalik is also translated from Arabic into French English. The French translation is entitled, "Reform Necessaires Aux Etats Musulmans: Le Plus sur Moyen pour connaitre l'etat des nations',"  Revue Tunisienne, No. 12 (October, 1896). The English translation is by Carl Brown and it is entitled The Surest Path. The quotes used in this dissertation are from the translation by Brown. 

Fallot, Ernest Fallot, Tunisie (Tunis; Franco-Tunisienne, 1888). 

Fitoussi, Elie Fitoussi and Benazet, Aristide, L'Etat Tunisien et Le Protectorat Francais (Paris; Librairie Arthur Rousseau, Rousseau and Co., 1931). 

Ganiage, Jean Ganiage, Les Origines Du Protectorat Francais En Tunisie (1861-1881) (2nd ed.; Tunis; Maison Tunisienne De L'Edition, 1968).

Hanna, Sami and Gardner, George, "Khayr Ad-Din and Muhammad Abduh; Did They or Didn't They," American Journal of Arabic Studies, II, (1974). 

Ibn Ashur, Muhammad At-Tahir, a laisa as-subh bi-qarib? (Tunis: Maison

        Tunisienne de 1"Edition, 1967). 

Lasram, Mohamed Lasram, "L'Enseignement Superieur Musulman: A La Mosquee De L'Olivier, ou Grande Mosquee, A Tunis," Congres De L'Afrique du Nord, tenu a Paris du 6 au 10 octobre 1908. 

La Tunisie: Histoire et Description, II (Paris: Berger-Levrault et Co., 1896). 

Machuel, L, "L'Enseignement Musulman En Tunisie," Revue Tunisienne, No. 16 (October, 1897). 

Muchrif, A, "La Reforme de l'Enseignement a la Grande Mosque (Zitouna) de Tunis, Revue Des Etudes Islamiques, IV (1930). 

Plancke, M, "Education in Tunisia During the Ottoman Period (1574-1881), Correspondance D'Orient, No. 11 (Brussels: Centre pour 1'Etude Problems du Monde Musulman, 1970). 

"Rapport Sur L'Enseignement," Rapports De La Sous-Commission D'Etudes Economiques, III (Tunis: Imprimerie J.C. Bonici, 1932). 

Zeys, Paul, Code Annote De La Tunisie; Recueil De Tous Les Documents Composant La Legislation Ecrite De Ce Pays Au lst Janvier 1901 (Nancy: Imprimerie Berger-Levrault et 6ie, 1901).