Program:
LE 10ème FESTIVAL DE FES DE LA CULTURE AMAZIGHE
DU 5 AU 7 Septembre 2014
Tinawt
tamaälant xf Tamazivt d landalus Fas 5-7
cutanbir 2014
Organisateurs : Association
Fès Saiss, Fondation Esprit de Fès, Centre Sud Nord
Partenaires :
Institut Royal
de la Culture Amazighe ,
Fondation BMCE, Maroc Telecom, Wilaya de Fès-Boulemane, Conseil de la Ville de Fès, Région de
Fès-Boulemane, Office National Marocain du Tourisme
Sites :
-CONGRES MONDIAL: PALAIS DES CONGRES (9:00
– 18 :00)
-SOIREES ARTISTIQUES : BAB MAKINA, MEDINA (20: 30 – 23:30)
-EXPOSITIONS
ET ATELIERS : PALAIS DES CONGRES (9:00 – 18 :00)
Congrès
International sur le thème : "LE BRASSAGE DE LA CULTURE AMAZIGHE
ET DE LA CULTURE
HASSANIA ET LEUR RELATION AVEC LES CULTURES SUB-SAHARIENNES"
En Hommage à l’honorable Docteur Ghita El
Khayat et à l’Eminent Professeur Michael Peyron
PROGRAMME
GENERAL
|
Vendredi 5
septembre
16 :00 : Accueil des Participants
16 :30 : Ouverture du Congrès et du Festival
-
Allocutions d’ouverture
17 : 00 –
17 : 15 : Hommage à l’Honorable Ecrivaine le Dr. Ghita El Khayat:
Témoignages
17 :
15 : Allocution du Dr.
Ghita El Khayat et du Professeur Michael Peyron
17 :
30 : Discours Inaugural : Amazighité et Pays du Sahel
Adamou Aboubacar ( Ex-Ministre
de l’Enseignement Supérieur
du Niger, Université de Niamey),
18 :00 Réception et Visite des Expositions
Soirée
Musicales
20 :30 -23:30 Place Bab
Makina
Xarnege group ( Région Basque, Espagne)
)
GROUPE TILILLI
HAMID AL KASRI
Samedi 6
septembre
Matinée
9 :00 – 9 :30
Salle 1
Discours inaugural : Celebrating
Diversity: Amazigh in the Wider African Context
Kwesi Prah (Université du Ghana)
9 :30 –
10 :50
Salle 2
Atelier
Alphabet Tifinagh
Animé par
l’IRCAM
Salle 1
Première Séance : Amazighité et Hassania : Dimension Civilisationnelle
Modérateur : Ahmed Boukous
Intervenants :
Mamadou Lamine Sall (Université Dakar), Catherine Taine-Cheikh
(Univ. De Paris 8), Mohand Tilmatine (Université de Cadiz), Ines
Kohl (Université de Vienne),
10 :50– 11 :20 Débat
11 : 20 – 11 : 35 Pause-café
11:35– 13:00
Salle 2
Séance
Parallèle : ATELIER DE
PEINTURE
Animé par Ali
Cherki
Salle 1
11 :35 –
12 :55
Deuxième Séance : Représentations
socioculturelles des cultures sub-sahariennes
Modératrice : Moha Ennaji
Intervenants : Madina
Toure (Université de Nouakchot), Cheikh Lekbir Biyadillah (Université
Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah , Fès), Moha Ennaji et Keith Martin (Honorary
Consul for Kingdom of Morocco, Utah, USA), Nathalie
Fave (Canada)
12:55 – 13 :25
Débat
15 :00 –
16 :15
Salle 2
Table ronde
sur le thème : « Langue maternelle, identité et écriture »
Modérateur :
Alfonso de Toro
Intervenants :
Alfonso de Toro (Université
de Leipzig) , Ieme van der
Poel (University d’Amsterdam), Abdelkader Benali (Ecrivain
maroco-hollandais),
Moha Souag (Ecrivain
maroain), Juliane Tauchnitz (Université de Leipzig)
16:15—16 :30 Pause-café
16:30 – 17 :15
Salle 1
Lectures de
poésie
Poètes : :Ali Chaaer, Hddou
Khoursa, Bassou Oujebbour, Nawal Alhwar, Adnan Bennis
Modérateur : Hassan Hjjij
Salle 2 :
Lecture Musicale
à propos des cultures amazighe et hassania
Jean-Marie
Simon
Modérateur : Mohammed Moubtassime
17 :15-18 :00
Projection de Film sur les
relations millénaires du Maroc avec l’Afrique
Soirée
Musicales
20:30 -23:30 Place Bab Makina
RABAH MARIOUARI
RACHIDA TALAL
Dimanche 7
septembre
Matinée
9 :00 –
12 :00
Salle 2
Séance
Parallèle : ATELIER CONTES
Animé par Jean-Marie
Simon (écrivain et animateur d’histoires) et Khadija Hassala (Chef Atelier de
Contes, Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, Fès)
Modérateur :
Fouad Saa
9 :00 –
10 :20
Salle 1
Troisième Séance : Le Patrimoine
Amazigh-Hassania
Modérateur : El Houssain El Moujahid
Intervenants : Anna-Maria di
Tolla (Università
degli Studi di Napoli), Nora Tigziri (Université Mouloud Mammeri De
Tizi-Ouzou), Ahmed Assid (IRCAM) ; Nebia Dadoua Hadria (Université
de Mascara)
10 :20 –
10:50 Débat
10 :50 –
121:05 Pause café
Quatrième Séance : Langues, Identités et
Cultures Africaines
Modérateur : Alfonso de Toro
11 :05 –
12: 05
Boukherrouf Ramdane (Université Mouloud Mammeri de Tizi-Ouzou),
Fatima
Abdelouahab (Université de Nouakchot)
Belkacem Boumdini (Université de Mascara)
Yasmina El Haddad (Universtié
d’Amsterdam)
Senouci Saliha (Université
d’Oran)
12:05 – 12 :35 Débat
12:35 Recommandations et Clôture
17 :00 –
20 :00 Visite Guidée de la Médina (facultative)
Soirée
Musicales
20:30 -
23 :30 Place Bab Makina
IMDIAZEN BAND
ABDELAZIZ AHOUZAR
EVENEMENT CULTUREL
INCONTOURNABLE
Du 5 au 7 Septembre,
un festival culturel unique, à Fès !
Venez assister au
plus important lieu d’échanges intellectuels et artistiques de la rive sud de la Méditerranée : 30
invités, 2 Sites, une dizaine de rencontres littéraires, débats, lectures,
contes, poésie, 5 films et documentaires, des ateliers, des expositions et
autres activités!
Rendez-vous Vendredi 5
Septembre à 17h au Palais des Congrès de Fès pour l'inauguration du Festival
suivie de la première soirée musicale du festival !
Des invités exceptionnels
Parmi les grands noms et les jeunes auteurs, cinéastes, poètes, conteurs, journalistes
et blogueurs… du Maroc, du Maghreb, du Sahel, et de la Méditerranée il y
aura :
Jean-Marie Simon, Fatima Mernissi, Moha Souag, Alfonso de Toro Abdelkader
Benali… et bien d’autres !
Expositions au
Palais des Congrès et à Bab Makina: livres, tapis amazighs du Moyen Atlas et de
Taznakt, artisanat
Oeuvres d’art de : Ali Cherki, Khadija Madani, Jamal Boutayeb
Animateurs des
soirées musicales : Driss Elkaissi et Laila Jaber
Interactions between Morocco and the Mali Empire Past and Present
KEITH W. MARTIN
PhD, Honorary Consul for Kingdom of Morocco (Utah, USA)
Synopsis
This chapter examines interactions between Morocco and the
past and present Mali Empire. It is
divided into two time periods. The first time period is between the 14th
and 17th centuries and reviews: 1) the historical
records on interactions between Morocco and the Mali Empire as recorded by Ibn
Battuta, Ibn Khaldun and Leo Africanus, with related information on the wealth of Mali’s Mansa Musa I’s
by al-‘Umari, 2) the rise and collapse of Moroccan Dynasties
before the creation of the Alaouite
dynasty, which continues today with the reign of King Mohammed VI, 3) the creation of the sovereign state of Mali
after the collapse of the Mali Empire. The second time period is the
21st century and reviews: 1)
the joint activities of King Mohammed VI and President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita of Mali. These activities focus on specific plans of financial and
educational support to this region in an effort to counter radical groups and
2) the plan that Morocco has to be the “Gateway to North Africa and the
Sub-Sahara to expand trade and opportunities to Morocco and sub-Saharan
countries. This paper concludes that the interactions between Morocco and Mali
are creating a bond, which helps King Mohammed VI share educational and
financial aid with Mali. This bond and exchange helps Mali support Morocco’s
stand against terrorist groups and
creates stronger sovereign states than was achieved by 14th
century Mansa Musa I’s prime plan to strengthen an international relationships
program with money.
Introduction to
the First-Time Period (14th to the 17th Century)
Activities
during the 14th through the 17th century laid the
foundation for the present Kingdom of Morocco and the State of Mali. These
activities are enhanced by historical records created by famous travelers Ibn
Battuta (1304 - ~1369 AD), who recorded his experiences in Morocco and the Mali
Empire, (Ibn Battuta, 1929), Ibn Khaldun (1332 – 1406 AD), whose book The
Muqaddimah includes historical, political, and social information during
the Marinid Dynasty (Ibn Khaldun, 1967), Leo Africanus (1494 – ~1554 AD), who recorded his visit to Timbuktu, (Leo
Africanus, 1896), and -‘Umari (1300 – 1384), who related
information on the wealth of Mali’s Mansa Musa I during his visit to Egypt (“Al-Umari,” 2014).
Morocco
during the 14th to the 17 century saw the rise and collapse of the Marinid, the Wattasides, and the Saadian
Dynasties and the rise of the Alaouite Dynasty in 1666, which is represented today by King Mohammed VI) (Moroccan Embassy DC, 2014).
While
transitions were occurring in Morocco, major changes were also happening in the
Mali Empire. During the 14th to the 17th century time
period, the Mali Empire rose and collapsed (1230 - 1600), which led to the “modern-day
countries of Senegal, southern Mauritania, Mali, northern Burkina Faso, western
Niger, the Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, the Ivory Coast and northern Ghana.” (“Mali
Empire,” 2014))
Morocco’s
Dynasties from the 14th to 17th century
During the 14th to the 17th century four Moroccan
Dynasties played key roles in laying the foundation for present-day Morocco: 1)
the Marinid Dynasty from 1244 to1465 (Marinid, 2014), 2) the Wattasides dynasty
from 1472 to 1554 (“Wattasides,” 2014), 3) the Saadi
dynasty from 1554 to 1659 (“Saadi,”
2014) and 4) the Alaouites Dynasty from 1666 to present (“Alaouite,” 2014).
Although each dynasty and its rulers played important roles in the
history of Morocco, the focus of this paper is on the Marinid Dynasty and its
rulers Sultan Abu Al-Hasan 'Ali ibn 'Othman from 1331to
1348 (“Abu Al-Hasan,” 2014) and his son Sultan Abu
Inan Faris from 1348 to 1358
(“Abu Inan Faris,” 2014), who reigned when the famous travelers and historians
Ibn Khaldun (Ibn Khaldun, 1967) and Ibn Battuta (Ibn Battuta, 1929)
lived and shared their experiences
concerning both the Marinid Dynasty and the Mali Empire. This
paper briefly reviews the Wattasides Dynasty from 1472 to 1554 (“Wattasid,” 2014), because it was in power when Leo Africanus
visited Mali and Timbuktu (Leo Africanus,
1896), the Saadi dynasty from 1554 to 1659 (“Saadi,” 2014),
because it links the Wattasides with the Alaouites, and the Alaouite Dynasty ‘s from 1666
to present,
because its founder Moulay Rachid
established the present ruling dynasty, which is the longest living dynasty in
Morocco’s recorded history (“Alaouite,” 2014).
The Marinid Dynasty
Ibn
Khaldun notes that “the Zanatah Merinids . . . declared themselves against the
Almohads and spent about thirty years waiting to gain possession of Fez.”
“Then, they spent another thirty years fighting (the Almohads) until they
gained domination over their capital in Marrakech” (Ibn Khaldun, Vol. 2 p. 134). With the capture of the Almohad Capital,
the Marinids moved the capital for the Marinids from Marrakech to Fes (“Fes,”
2014). The moving of the capital
supports two of Ibn Khaldun beliefs: 1) each “nation
must have a home, (a place) where it grows up and from which the realm took its
origin” and 2) when a capital is moved, as happened to the Almohad capital when
the Marinids “moved from Marrakech to Fez, . . . it causes disintegration of
the civilization in the former seat of government [Marrakech]” (Ibn Khaldun,
Vol. 2 p. 299).
The 14th
century was the height of the Marinid power, which decreased when battles were
lost in Spain and the Maghreb during the reign of Sultan Abu al-Hasan ‘Ali (1331–1348) and later during the reign of his
son Abu Inan Faris, after he had replaced his father as Sultan after internal regal conflicts (1348 – 1358).
When internal government conflicts continued during the reign of Abu Inan, Abu
Inan “was strangled by his own vizir.” After the death of Abu Inan Faris, “the
real power [for ruling Morocco] lay with the viziers,” the “dynasty began to
decline,” “sultans were paraded and forced to
succeed each other in quick succession,” and the country became politically
divided (“Marinid,” 2014).
Although
the Marinids were well organized, their decline of power confirms that
organization isn’t enough to prolong the life of a ruling dynasty, when
numerous social, political, and financial factors aren’t addressed.
Selected comments on the Marinid leadership by Ibn Khaldun in The
Muqaddimah:
Ibn Khaldun (1332 – 1406) was “an Arab historiographer and historian, regarded
to be among the founding fathers of modern historiography, sociology, and
economics.” “He is best known for his book The Muqaddimah (known as Prolegomena in
Greek)” (“Ibn Khaldun,” 2014). The Muqaddimah presents an important historical insight that helps to
better understand Morocco’s leadership during the Marinid Dynasty. In
this paper Ibn Khaldun’s comments on leadership are limited to the offices of
sultan and vizier. Ibn Khaldun lived in Fes during the reign of the Marinid Sultan
Abu Inan Faris,
The Sultan was
the ruler in most of the areas Ibn Khaldun visit. The following are some of Ibn
Khaldun’s statements on the Sultan: 1) The caliphate “substitutes for the
Lawgiver (Muhammad) in as much as it serves, like him, to preserve the religion
and to exercise (political) leadership of the world.” 2) The caliph “has (also)
been called ‘the sultan.’” 3) When there were challenges to a new “institution”
or sultan’s authority, “People were forced to render the oath of allegiance to
anybody who seized power.” (Ibn Khaldun,
Vol 1 p. 388)
Although Ibn Khaldun had disagreements with the Marinid sultan Inan Fares, which “brought the 25-year-old
[Ibn Khaldun] a 22-month prison sentence” (“Ibn Khaldun,” 2014), he believed in “royal authority” and that
the sultan had religious and social importance. He stated: “When one
considers what God meant the caliphate [sultan] to be, nothing more needs (to
be said) about it. (God) made the caliph
his substitute to handle the affairs of His servants. He is to make them do the
things that are good for them and not do those that are harmful” (Ibn Khaldun
Vol.1 p. 401).
A
Sultan has many responsibilities, which he can delegate to others under his
leadership. Often his responsibility of “the sword [war],” “the pen [writing],”
“collection [taxes] and distribution of (the money)” were delegated to his
Vizier (Ibn Khaldun Vol. 2 p. 10). Concerning the Sultan duties, Ibn Khaldun noted:
“The person from whom the ruler seeks help may help him with the sword, or with
the pen, or with advice and knowledge, or by keeping the people from crowding
upon him and diverting him from the supervision of their affairs. (The ruler
may) also entrust the supervision of the whole realm to him and rely upon his
competence and ability for the task. Therefore, the help the ruler seeks may be
given by one man, or it may be distributed among several individuals . . .” (Ibn
Khaldun Vol. 2 p. 4).
The financial
strength of Marinid Sultans: The financial strength of selected 14th
century Marinid Sultans is presented to help create a comparison of the Marinid
Sultans with Mansa Musa I, the head of state of Mali, during the paper’s
discussion on Mansa Musa I. This financial information is listed in “hundredweight.”
Before “the 15th century in England,” a
hundredweight was “equal to 108 lbs.” (“Hundredweight,” 2014). 108
lbs is used to calculate the conversions listed in [ ]: “In their treasury, I
came across an inventory in the handwriting of the Merinid minister of finance,
Hassun b. al-Bawwaq. (The inventory states
that) the property left by Sultan Abu Sa'id in his treasury was over 700
hundredweight [75,600 lbs/34019.428 kgs ] of gold dinars. He also had other
property of a proportionately large amount. His son and successor, Abu l-Hasan,
had even more than that. When he took possession of Tlemcen he found more than 300 hundredweight [32,400] of
gold in coins and (gold) jewelry, and a correspondingly large amount of other
property [32,400] in the treasuries of the Sultan of (Tlemcen), the 'Abd
al-Wadud Abu Tashfin” (Ibn Khaldun, Vol. 1 pp. 367-368).
The
Vizier received his authority from the Sultan. Ibn Khaldun had many experiences
with Wazirate (Vizierate). One of these
experiences followed the assassination of Abu Inan Faris by his Vizier al-Hasān
ibn-Uma (“Abu Inan Faris,” 2014). Vizier “al-Hasān ibn-Umar granted” Ibn
Khaldun freedom from the prison sentence he was given by Abu Inan Faris and
reinstated Ibn Khaldun “in his rank and offices” (“Ibn Khaldun,” 2014). Concerning the “Wazirate” and his duties, Ibn Khaldun
stated: 1) is “the mother of governmental functions and royal Ranks” (Ibn
Khaldun Vol. 2 p. 6), 2) gives “general assistance in connection with
everything under the ruler's direct control,” 3) has “constant contact” with the ruler” and
participates “in all his governmental activities, and 4) has activities, under
the ruler, which “concern some particular group of people . . . . (Among such activities are) the (military)
leadership of a border region, the administration of some special tax, or the
supervision of some particular matter, such as surveillance (hisbah) of
foodstuffs, or supervision of the mint” (Ibn Khaldun Vol. 2 pp. 6-7). After
the death of Sultan The Marinid viziers temporary increased their powers as the
powers of the Marinid Sultans decreased.
Selected comments on Marinid leadership by Ibn Battuta (1304 – 1368 or 1369) (“Ibn Battuta,” 2014)
Ibn Battuta: Ibn Battuta. A
contemporary of Ibn Khaldun, had a more romantic point of view on the Marinid Sultans
than Ibn Khaldun. While Ibn Khaldun’s comments and actions resulted in prison
time, Ibn Battuta’s comments gained the Sultan’s
support and the use of the Sultan’s writer to write his adventures.
Although Ibn Battuta travelled
extensively, most of the information presented in this paper is from Ibn
Battuta’s travels in Morocco and the Mali Empire.
Ibn Battuta
arrives in Fez: “[I] arrived at the royal city of Fez on Friday, at the end of
the month of Sha'ban of the year 750 [November 13, 1349]. I presented myself
before our most noble master the most generous imam, the Commander of the
Faithful, al-Mutawakkil Abu' Inan--may God enlarge his greatness and humble his
enemies. His dignity made me forget the dignity of the sultan of Iraq, his
beauty the beauty of the king of India, his fine qualities the noble character
of the king of Yemen, his courage the courage of the king of the Turks, his
clemency the clemency of the king of the Greeks, his devotion the devotion of
the king of Turkistan, and his knowledge the knowledge of the king of Jawa
[Java]. I laid down the staff of travel in his glorious land, having assured
myself after unbiassed [sic] consideration that it is the best of countries,
for in it fruits are plentiful, and running water and nourishing food are never
exhausted. Few indeed are the lands which unite all these advantages, and well
spoken are the poet's words:” "Of all the lands the West by this token's
the best: Here the full moon is spied and the sun speeds to rest" (Ibn
Battuta, pp. 68–69).
Ibn Battuta’s
extensive travel and his praise of the Sultan brought him support and
encouragement from Sultan Abu Inan Faris, who requested Ibn Battuta dictate “an account of his journeys . . . . The
account is the only source for Ibn Battuta's adventures” (“Ibn Battuta,” 2014).
During Ibn
Battuta’s visit to Marrakesh, he describes the city and praises Sultan Abu’l
Hasan, the father of Sultan Abu Inan Faris. This again supports the belief that
Ibn Battuta respected both Sultan Abu Inan Frais and his father Abu’l-Hasan: “[The
city of Marrakesh] is one of the most beautiful of cities, spaciously built and
extending over a wide area, with abundant supplies. It contains magnificent
mosques, such as its principal mosque, known as the Mosque of the Kutubiyin
[the Booksellers]. There is a marvellously tall minaret there; I climbed it and
obtained a view of the whole town from it. The town is now largely in ruins, so
that I could compare it only to Baghdad, though the bazaars in Baghdad are
finer. At Marrakush [Marrakesh] too there is a splendid college, distinguished
by its fine site and solid construction; it was built by our master the
Commander of the Faithful, Abu'l-Hasan [the late sultan of Morocco]. After
returning to Fez, in 1352 Ibn Battuta crosses the Sahara and makes a tour of
the kingdom of Mali, including the city of Timbuktoo. Ibn Battuta prepares to
cross the Sahara. At Sijilmasa [at the
edge of the desert] I bought camels and a four months' supply of forage for
them. Thereupon I set out on the 1st Muharram of the year 53 [AH 753, February
13, 1352]” (Ibn Battuta, p. 74).
The Wattasid Dynasty
The Wattassids,
like the Merinides, “were of Zenata Berber descent.” “They
had close ties to the Merinid sultans,” They rose in power and after major
battles, Abu Abdellah al-Shaykh Muhammad ben Yehya . . . found the Kingdom of
Fez and established the dynasty to be succeeded by his son, Mohammed
al-Burtuqali, in 1504 (“Wattasid,” 2014).
“When the dynasty was feebled, Spain and Portugal were
turning eyes towards Morocco. At that time, there was another ruler, Ibn Wattas, who
came from Asilah to Fez.” (Moroccan Embassy DC, 2014)
During the Wattaside Dynasty, Leo Africanus left Granada with his
family, settled in Fes, and as “a young man he accompanied an uncle
on a diplomatic mission, reaching as far as the [the former Mali Empire] city
of Timbuktu (c. 1510) (“Leo Africanus,” 2014). In 1510, Timbuktu was part of the Songhai Empire (“Songhai Empire,” 2014).
Saadi dynasty
“Were descendants from the prophet Mohamed. They
originally came from Arabia in the 12th Century, and settled in the
valley of the Draa in the South of Morocco. They moved to Fez and were easily
given power by the Wattasides (Wattasid – Embassy, 2014). Under
the Saadi dynasty they defended “the
country against the Ottomans” (“Saadi,”
2014). “Their reign over Morocco began with the reign
of Sultan Mohammed
ash-Sheikh in 1554, when he vanquished the last Wattasids at the Battle of Tadla. The Saadian
rule ended in 1659 with the end of the reign of Sultan Ahmad el
Abbas” (Saadi,
2014).
The Alaouites
The Alaouites, the present ruling Dynasty: “They
were also descended from the prophet Mohamed. They had arrived from Arabia some
three centuries earlier to settle near Rissani in the Tafilalet region in the
south.( They are referred to as Filali). Unlike preceding dynasties they did
not move and seize power but were formally invited by the people of Fez to come
to the capital and take over the throne of Morocco. The first Alaouite ruler,
Moulay Rachid, reigned in 1666. He restored order with a firm hand, revived the
life of all mosques and drove out all the pretenders. Under the reign of Moulay
Ismael (1672-1727) Morocco was made again a great country. He exchanged
ambassadors with many leading Powers. Meknes was chosen by Moulay Ismael as the
imperial city which he made his capital. Today, the miles of ruined walls,
palaces and stables bear witness to his energy and ambition and also to the
scale of his success”
(Moroccan Embassy DC, 2014).
(Moroccan Embassy DC, 2014).
Key
Moroccan Travelers from 14th through the 17th centuries
In Morocco, the 14th through the 17th centuries were
a period of three renowned Moroccan travelers: Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Battuta, and
Leo Africanus. These travelers explored
Europe, Africa, and Asia and left their accounts of their travels. Although
they wrote about numerous places they visited, the focus of this paper is their
comments on Morocco and the Mali Empire.
Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldun travelled to Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. His
comments on the Mali Empire supplement the contemporary travel reports given by
Ibn Battuta on the Mali Empire. Because of the lack of detail concerning the
Mali people, Ibn Khaldun appears to have not visited Mali, but base his
comments on interviews of people who were from or visited Mali.
Mali: Ibn
Khaldun notes that by the 14th century, the “Ghanah” Dynasty had “disappeared, and Ghanah belongs
to the Mali ruler.” “Moroccan merchants travel to their country.” (Ibn
Khaldun Vol. 1. pp. 118-119) Those in Mali,
who “live close to the Maghrib and, at this time, are Muslims. They are said to
have adopted Islam in the seventh [thirteenth] century.” (Ibn Khaldun Vol. 1. p.
169)
Ibn Khaldun
made the following generalized statement about the “inhabitants of the zones
that are far from temperate: “The inhabitants of the zones that are far from
temperate, such as the first, second, sixth, and seventh zone [which include
Mali], are also farther removed from being temperate in all their conditions.
Their buildings are of clay and reeds. Their foodstuffs are durra and
herbs. Their clothing is the leaves of
trees, which they sew together to cover themselves, or animal skins. Most of
them go naked.” (Ibn Khaldun Vol 1 pp. 168-169).
Although this
statement is a generalization of the inhabitants in the temperate zones, it
isn’t country specific. However, his comments partially confirmed what Ibn
Battuta details concerning his visit to the Mali Empire.
Ibn Khaldun’s
comments of contemporary traveler Ibn Battuta: This comment seems to be a little jealous of the attention Ibn Battuta
received by telling world-travel stories and the attention and support that Ibn
Battuta received from the Sultan and Vizier: “In the times of the Merinid
Sultan, Abu 'Inan,a shaykh from Tangier, by name Ibn Battutah, came (back) to the
Maghrib. Twenty years before, he had left for the East and journeyed through
the countries of the 'Iraq, the Yemen, and India. He had come to the city of
Delhi, the seat of the ruler of India, the Sultan Muhammad Shah, (The ruler) esteemed Ibn
Battutah highly and employed him as Malikite judge in his domain. He then
returned to the Maghrib and made contact with the Sultan Abu 'Inan. He used to
tell about experiences he had had on his travels and about the remarkable
things he had seen in the different realms. He spoke mostly about the ruler of
India. He reported things about him that his listeners considered strange.
That, for instance, when the ruler of India went on a trip, he counted the
inhabitants of his city, men, women, and children, and ordered that their
requirements for (the next) six months be paid them out of his own income. When
he returned from his trip and entered (the city), it was a festive day. All the
people went out into the open country and strolled about. In front of (the
ruler), in the crowd, mangonels were set up on the backs of pack animals. From the mangonels, bags
of dirhams and dinars were shot out over the people, until the ruler entered
his audience hall. Ibn Battutah told other similar stories, and people in the
dynasty (in official positions) whispered to each other that he must be a liar.
During that time, one day I met the Sultan's famous wazir, Faris b.Wadrar. I
talked to him about this matter and intimated to him that I did not believe
that man's stories, because people in the dynasty were in general inclined to
consider him a liar. Whereupon the wazir Faris said to me: "Be careful not
to reject such information about the conditions of dynasties, because you have
not seen such things yourself. You would then be like the son of the wazir who
grew up in prison” (Ibn Khaldun Vol 1 pp. 369-371).
Ibn Battuta (1304 – 1368 or
1369 AD), A Famous Moroccan World Explorer
Ibn Battuta “was a Moroccan explorer of Berber descent” (“Ibn Battuta,” 2014). He
traveled in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries for nearly 30 years (1325 –
1354). One of the reasons he gives for traveling to
the Far East was because “the pious ascetic Burhan ad-Din,” told him, "you
must certainly visit my brother Farid Oddin in India, and my brother Rokn Oddin
in Sindia, and also my brother Borhan Oddin in China, and when you find them,
present my compliments to them.” Ibn Battuta did not stop his Far East journey
until he had met all three brothers and “presented his compliments to them”
(Ibn Battuta – 2004, p. 7).
The
stories of Ibn Battuta travels in Morocco and to the Mali Empire add a tourist
view of the political and socially complex 14th century
Moroccan-Marinid Dynasty mentioned by Ibn Khaldun and its relationship with the
Mali Empire. Ibn Khaldun discusses the strengths and weaknesses of the Marinid
Dynasty and Dynasties like that in the Mali Empire, while Ibn Battuta wrote
about the greatness of the Moroccan Sultans and the royal display of the Mali
King. Ibn Khaldun questioned Ibn
Battuta’s stories of his travels, while Sultan ‘Inan enjoyed them so much that
he commissioned Ibn Battuta to dictate his stories so they could be written and
remembered from the 14th century to the present. Ibn Battuta shared
his praise of the Marinid Sultan and his thoughts that the Mali King Sulayman
was miserly compared to his brother Mansa Musa I, who bought friendship with
gold gifts. Ibn Battuta’s writings bring
life, personality, and challenges to the historical players in Morocco and Mali
in the 14th century that would have been lost if Sultan ‘Inan hadn’t
thought his travels were valuable enough to authorize that they be dictated by
Ibn Battuta and writing for all to enjoy.
Ibn Battuta begins his journey: “I left Tangier, my birthplace, on Thursday, 2nd Rajab
725 [June 14, 1325], being at that time twenty-two years of age, . . . with the
intention of making the Pilgrimage to the Holy House [at Mecca] and the Tomb of
the Prophet [at Medina] (Ibn Battuta – 1929, p. 43).”
Ibn
Battuta’s thoughts on Sultan Abu ‘Inan: After 24 years (1325 – 1349) Ibn
Battuta returned to Fes and praised Sultan Abu ‘Inan as “the Commander of the
Faithful” and compared him to other leaders:
“His
dignity made me forget the dignity of the sultan of Iraq, his beauty the beauty
of the king of India, his fine qualities the noble character of the king of
Yemen, his courage the courage of the king of the Turks, his clemency the
clemency of the king of the Greeks, his devotion the devotion of the king of
Turkistan, and his knowledge the knowledge of the king of Jawa [Java]. I laid
down the staff of travel in his glorious land, having assured myself after
unbiassed [sic] consideration that it is the best of countries, for in it
fruits are plentiful, and running water and nourishing food are never
exhausted. Few indeed are the lands which unite all these advantages . . . (Ibn
Battuta – 1929, pp. 308-311).”
Ibn
Battuta visited Marrakesh in 1350. He briefly describes the city, its Mosque
and its College built by Sultan Abu ‘l-Hassan. This praise, after Marrakesh
suffered from the Black Plague and battles with the Marinids, is another
support for the good feeling Ibn Battuta seems to have had for Sultan Abu
‘l-Hassan, the father of Sultan ‘Inan and the balance he had to follow until
Abul ‘l-Hassan’s death in 1351:
Marrakesh “is
one of the most beautiful of cities, spaciously built and extending over a wide
area, with abundant supplies. It contains magnificent mosques, such as . . .
the Mosque of the Kutubiyin [the Booksellers].” “At Marrakush [Marrakesh] too
there is a splendid college . . . built by our master the Commander of the
Faithful, Abu'l-Hasan [the late sultan of Morocco]. . .” (Ibn Battuta – 1929, p. 316).
Ibn
Battuta begins his journey to the Mali Kingdom after returning to Fes in 1352: Ibn Battuta mostly likely wanted to go
to Mali, because in Egypt he had heard about the generosity of Mansa Musa
I.
Selected
details from Ibn Battuta’s writings concerning his travels to Mali are
presented in this paper to better
understand the Mali Empire and its culture, political structure, and source of
wealth (gold and salt). A review of the Mali Empire helps to compare its
organization and structure with the Marinid leaders’ organization and
structure.
Ibn
Battuta learns about “the slaves” and “the saltworks at the oasis of Taghaza”:
Taghaza’s saltworks were
being “abandoned and replaced by Taoudenni, but salt from the mines
formed an important part of . . . trans-Saharan trade.” (“Taghaza,” 2014). This demonstrates
that part of the source of wealth of the Mali Empire was decreasing. Both salt
and gold were major components in the wealth of Mansa Musa I and Mansa Sulayman.
“Salt was as valuable, if not more valuable as gold in Sub-Saharan Africa”
(“Mali Empire,” 2014). Concerning visiting Taghaza, Ibn Battuta wrote:
We
“reached Taghaza, an unattractive village, with the curious feature that its
houses and mosques are built of blocks of salt, roofed with camel skins . .
. No one lives at Taghaza except the
slaves of the Massufa tribe, who dig for the salt; they subsist on dates
imported from Dar'a and Sijilmasa, camels' flesh, and millet imported from the
Negrolands. The negroes come up from their country and take away the salt from
there” (Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 317-323).
Ibn
Battuta visits Walata: “The caravan reached the oasis of Iwalatan (Walata), Ibn Battuta rented a home
and learned about Walata hospitality, “contempt for the whites,” and the ruling
of villages in the Mali Empire. Ruling of the village was under the direction
of a “farba (Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 317-323), who was “picked by the mansa . . . . The only real requirement
was that the mansa knew he could trust this individual to safeguard imperial
interests” (“Mali Empire,” 2014).
“When
we arrived there, the merchants deposited their goods in an open square, where
the blacks undertook to guard them, and went to the farba. He was sitting on a carpet under an archway,
with his guards before him . . . . The merchants remained standing in front of
him while he spoke to them through an interpreter, although they were close to
him, to show his contempt for them. It was then that I repented of having come
to their country, because of their lack of manners and their contempt for the
whites.”
After
visiting Iwalatan for fifty days, Ibn Battuta “thought it best to go to see the
capital of their king [of the kingdom of Mali, at the city of Mali]” (Ibn
Battuta – 1929, pp. 317-323). However,
because he stayed 50 days in Walata, it appears he forgot some of his contempt and maybe
he even appreciated his host’s hospitality.
Ibn
Battuta travels to Mali, the “capital of the Kingdom of Mali.” He explained the
need to take safety measures during his journey. He also mentioned that Mali
was “the capital of the king of the blacks,” and there was an area “occupied by
the whites.” In Mali, he rented a home and experienced the hospitality of the people
of Mali (Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 323-335).
Ibn
Battuta met the Mansa, sultan or king of Mali. Since Ibn Battuta did not
receive gold from Mansa Sulayman, his first comment was that the sultan was “a
miserly king, not a man from whom one might hope for a rich present.” This
comment shows that much change had taken place since his brother, Mansa Musa I
showered gold on many in Cairo (Al-Umari, 2014). The following is Ibn
Battuta’s experience which is presented in full to increase the understanding
of visiting with royalty in the 14th Century and the royal customs
in Mali.
“The
sultan of Malli is Mansa Sulayman, "Mansa" meaning [in Mandingo]
sultan, and Sulayman being his proper name. He is a miserly king, not a man
from whom one might hope for a rich present. It happened that I spent these two
months without seeing him, on account of my illness. Later on he held a banquet
in commemoration of our master [the late sultan of Morocco] Abu'l-Hasan, to
which the commanders, doctors, qadi and preacher were invited, and I went along
with them. Reading-desks were brought in, and the Koran was read through, then
they prayed for our master Abu'l-Hasan and also for Mansa Sulayman.”
“When
the ceremony was over I went forward and saluted Mansa Sulayman. The qadi, the
preacher, and Ibn al-Faqih told him who I was, and he answered them in their
tongue. They said to me, "The sultan says to you 'Give thanks to
God,'" so I said, "Praise be to God and thanks under all
circumstances." When I withdrew the [sultan's] hospitality gift was sent
to me. It was taken first to the qadi's house, and the qadi sent it on with his
men to Ibn al-Faqih's house. Ibn al-Faqih came hurrying out of his house
barefooted, and entered my room saying, "Stand up; here comes the sultan's
stuff and gift to you." So I stood up thinking--since he had called it
"stuff"--that it consisted of robes of honour and money, and lo!, it
was three cakes of bread, and a piece of beef fried in native oil, and a
calabash of sour curds. When I saw this I burst out laughing, and thought it a
most amazing thing that they could be so foolish and make so much of such a
paltry matter” (Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 323-335).
The
court ceremonial of king Sulayman of Mali showed the power of the king. During
this visit Ibn Battuta generalized that “the negroes are . . . submissive. Ibn
Battuta thought the negroes were more submissive than what he experienced in
Fes and many other areas of the world. This “submissive” nature may be one of
the reasons the Mali Empire collapsed. Ibn
Battuta noted:
“On
certain days the sultan holds audiences in the palace yard, where there is a
platform under a tree, with three steps; this they call the "pempi."
It is carpeted with silk and has cushions placed on it. [Over it] is raised the
umbrella, which is a sort of pavilion made of silk, surmounted by a bird in
gold, about the size of a falcon. The sultan comes out of a door in a corner of
the palace, carrying a bow in his hand and a quiver on his back. On his head he
has a golden skull-cap, bound with a gold band which has narrow ends shaped
like knives, more than a span in length. His usual dress is a velvety red
tunic, made of the European fabrics called "mutanfas." The sultan is
preceded by his musicians, who carry gold and silver guimbris [two-stringed
guitars], and behind him come three hundred armed slaves. He walks in a
leisurely fashion, affecting a very slow movement, and even stops from time to
time. On reaching the pempi he stops and looks round the assembly, then ascends
it in the sedate manner of a preacher ascending a mosque-pulpit. As he takes
his seat the drums, trumpets, and bugles are sounded. Three slaves go out at a
run to summon the sovereign's deputy and the military commanders, who enter and
sit down. Two saddled and bridled horses are brought, along with two goats,
which they hold to serve as a protection against the evil eye. Dugha stands at
the gate and the rest of the people remain in the street, under the trees.”
“The
negroes are of all people the most submissive to their king and the most abject
in their behaviour before him. They swear by his name, saying "Mansa
Sulayman ki" [in Mandingo, "the emperor Sulayman has commanded"]
(Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 323-325).”
Activities
at Festival ceremonies are examined to emphasize that the show of wealth was
carried on by Mansa Musa I’s brother Mansa Sulayman. Since the Sultan’s
interpreter Dugha was also able to show wealth with “his four wives,” “his slave-girls,” beautiful robes and gold
and silver, it appears that Mansa Sulayman may have been a “a miserly king” to
visitors, but he still maintained loyalty by sharing his wealth from gold and
salt with his inner court. Ibn Battuta Noted:
“I
was at Malli during the two festivals of the sacrifice and the fast-breaking.
On these days the sultan takes his seat on the pempi after the midafternoon
prayer. The armour-bearers bring in magnificent arms--quivers of gold and
silver, swords ornamented with gold and with golden scabbards, gold and silver
lances, and crystal maces. At his head stand four amirs driving off the flies,
having in their hands silver ornaments resembling saddle-stirrups. The
commanders, qadi and preacher sit in their usual places.”
“The
interpreter Dugha comes with his four wives and his slave-girls, who are about
a hundred in number. They are wearing beautiful robes, and on their heads they
have gold and silver fillets, with gold and silver balls attached. A chair is
placed for Dugha to sit on. He plays on an instrument made of reeds, with some
small calabashes at its lower end, and chants a poem in praise of the sultan,
recalling his battles and deeds of valour. The women and girls sing along with
him and play with bows. Accompanying them are about thirty youths, wearing red
woollen tunics and white skull-caps; each of them has his drum slung from his
shoulder and beats it. Afterwards come his boy pupils who play and turn wheels
in the air, like the natives of Sind. They show a marvellous nimbleness and
agility in these exercises and play most cleverly with swords. Dugha also makes
a fine play with the sword. Thereupon the sultan orders a gift to be presented
to Dugha and he is given a purse containing two hundred mithqals of gold dust
and is informed of the contents of the purse before all the people. The
commanders rise and twang their bows in thanks to the sultan. The next day each
one of them gives Dugha a gift, every man according to his rank. Every Friday
after the 'asr prayer, Dugha carries out a similar ceremony to this that we
have described” (Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 323-325).
“Ibn
Battuta judges the character” and piety “of the people of Mali:” “The negroes
possess some admirable qualities. They are seldom unjust, and have a greater abhorrence
of injustice than any other people. Their sultan shows no mercy to anyone who
is guilty of the least act of it. There is complete security in their country.
Neither traveller nor inhabitant in it has anything to fear from robbers or men
of violence. They do not confiscate the property of any white man who dies in
their country, even if it be uncounted wealth. On the contrary, they give it
into the charge of some trustworthy person among the whites, until the rightful
heir takes possession of it. They are careful to observe the hours of prayer,
and assiduous in attending them in congregations, and in bringing up their
children to them”
“On
Fridays, if a man does not go early to the mosque, he cannot find a corner to
pray in, on account of the crowd. It is a custom of theirs to send each man his
boy [to the mosque] with his prayer-mat; the boy spreads it out for his master
in a place befitting him [and remains on it] until he comes to the mosque.
Their prayer-mats are made of the leaves of a tree resembling a date-palm, but
without fruit.”
“Another
of their good qualities is their habit of wearing clean white garments on
Fridays. Even if a man has nothing but an old worn shirt, he washes it and
cleans it, and wears it to the Friday service. Yet another is their zeal for
learning the Koran by heart. They put their children in chains if they show any
backwardness in memorizing it, and they are not set free until they have it by
heart. I visited the qadi in his house on the day of the festival. His children
were chained up, so I said to him, "Will you not let them loose?" He
replied, "I shall not do so until they learn the Koran by heart" (Ibn
Battuta – 1929, pp. 323-325).
Ibn
Battuta leaves the city of Mali and travels toward Tumbuktu [Timbuktu]. On the way
to Tumbuktu, he rides a camel, “because horse are expensive, he marvels at the
appearance of “hippopotami,” he pass near a village of cannibals, and finally
arrives at Tumbuktu. He states, “The date of my arrival at Malli was 14th
Jumada I, 53 [AH 753, June 28, 1352], and of my departure from it 22nd Muharram
of the year 54 [AH 754, February 27, 1353].” Concerning his visit to Timbuktu,
he notes:
We
“went on to Tumbuktu, which stands four miles from the river [Niger]. Most of
its inhabitants are of the Massufa tribe, wearers of the face-veil. Its
governor is called Farba Musa. I was present with him one day when he had just
appointed one of the Massufa to be amir of a section. He assigned to him a
robe, a turban, and trousers, all of them of dyed cloth, and bade him sit upon
a shield, and the chiefs of his tribe raised him on their heads. In this town
is the grave of the meritorious poet Abu Ishaq as-Sahili, of Gharnata
[Granada], who is known in his own land as at-Tuwayjin ["Little
Saucepan"]” (Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 323-325). Although Mansa Musa built the Djinguereber Mosque in 1327, Ibn Battuta does mention
the Mosque.
Ibn
Battuta leaves Timbuktoo for Gogo, where he was impressed by Gogo’s size and
provisions. “From Tumbuktu I sailed down the Nile [Niger] on a small boat,
hollowed out of a single piece of wood.”
“I
went on . . . to Gawgaw [Gogo], which is a large city on the Nile [Niger], and
one of the finest towns in the Negrolands. It is also one of their biggest and
best-provisioned towns, with rice in plenty, milk, and fish, and there is a
species of cucumber there called "inani" which has no equal. The
buying and selling of its inhabitants is done with cowry-shells, and the same
is the case at Malli [the city of Mali]. I stayed there about a month, and then
set out in the direction of Tagadda by land with a large caravan of merchants
from Ghadamas” (Ibn Battuta – 1929, pp. 323-325).
Ibn
Battuta ended his many travels, returned to Fes, met and praised the Sultan,
and dictated his travel memories
“I
arrived at the royal city of Fa's [Fez], the capital of our master the
Commander of the Faithful (may God strengthen him), where I kissed his
beneficent hand and was privileged to behold his gracious countenance. [Here] I
settled down under the wing of his bounty after long journeying. May God Most
High recompense him for the abundant favours and ample benefits which he has
bestowed on me; may He prolong his days and spare him to the Muslims for many
years to come.”
“Here
ends the travel-narrative entitled "A Donation to those interested in the
Curiosities of the Cities and Marvels of the Ways." Its dictation was
finished on 3rd Dhu'l-hijja 756 [December 9, 1355]. Praise be to God, and peace
to His creatures whom He hath chosen.” “This is the end of Ibn Battuta's book
of travels” (Ibn Battuta – 1929, P. 339). The Sultan’s writer Ibn Juzayy, who
Ibn Battuta first met in Granada, received the dictation and helped him write
his book called the “Rihla” (the journey).
Joannes Leo Africanus (Leo Africanus), (1494 –
1554?)
Leo
Africanus . . . was an Andalusian
Amazigh Moorish diplomat and author who is best known for his book Descrittione
dell’Africa (Description of Africa) describing the geography of North Africa (“Leo
Africanus,” 2014). This paper uses a selection
of Leo Africanus’ of 16th century detailed description of Timbuktu
to show that there were few physical changes in Timbuktu since Ibn Battuta’s
visit in the 14th century.
When
Leo Africanus’ visited Timbuktu it had increased in importance since Ibn
Battuta’s visit, yet gold still played an important role in the economy and the
“king
has a rich treasure of coins and gold ingots.” Africanus noted that “Grain and
animals are abundant, so that the consumption of milk and butter is
considerable. But salt is in very short supply” However,
salt was now in “short supply” and major political changes occurred with the
decrease in the power of the Mali Empire with the change in leadership. When
Leo Africanus visited Timbuktu, it was part of the Songhai Empire, which
confirms that the 14th century Mali Empire no longer existed.
Description of
Timbuktu: The houses in Timbuktu were “cottages built of chalke
[clay],” and covered “with thatch.” There was a “stately temple,” which had
walls “made of stone and lime.” There was also a palace that was built by
Granada workers. There “are many shops of artificers, and merchants, and
especially of such as weave linen” and “cotton cloth.” The “Barbarie-merchants
bring cloth of Europe.” “All the women of this region except maid-servants go
with their faces covered.” “The inhabitants & especially strangers there
residing, are exceeding rich, insomuch, that the king” has “married both his
daughters” to “rich merchants.”
Timbuktu
had good water, corn, cattle, milk and butter, but there was a scarcity of salt.
Salt was brought from “Tegaza, which is five hundred miles” away. “The rich
king” of Timbuktu has much gold. One gold ingots weight “1300 poundes.”
“The
inhabitants are people of a gentle and cheerful disposition, and spend a great
part of the night in singing and dancing through all the streets of the citie.”
They have men and women slaves (Leo Africanus - 1896, pp. 824-825).
Leo
also gave a description of Mali and other cities that were in the Mali Empire.
In the description of Mali, Leo said the following (Note: for this description,
the spelling and grammar in the first English edition are presented. This
description shows wealth and power still existed, as it did in the time of Ibn
Battuta, in the city of Mali.
“And
here the king hath his place of residence. The region It selfe yeeldeth great
abundance of corne, flesh, and cotton. Heere are many artificers and merchants
in all places: and yet the king honourably entertaineth all strangers. The
inhabitants are rich, and haue plentie of wares. Heere are great store of
temples, priests, and professours, which professours read their lectures onely
in the temples, bicause they haue no colleges at all. The people of this region
excell all other Negros in witte, ciuilitie, and industry; and were the first
that embraced the law of Mahumet” (Leo Africanus - 1896, p. 823).
During the 17th
and 18th centuries, “The city's
decline continued, with the increasing trans-atlantic trade routes –
transporting African slaves, including leaders and scholars of Timbuktu –
marginalising Timbuktu's role as a trade and scholarly center (“Timbuktu”, 2014).
Mali Empire from 14th through the 17th
centuries
The Mali
Empire “was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the wealth
of its rulers, especially Mansa Musa. The Mali Empire had many profound
cultural influences on West Africa, allowing the spread of its language, laws
and customs along the Niger River (“Mali Empire,” 2014). The Mali Empire (1230 –1600) is presently the “modern-day countries of Senegal, southern
Mauritania, Mali, northern Burkina Faso, western Niger, the Gambia,
Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, the Ivory Coast and northern Ghana” (“Mali Empire,”
2014).
In
this paper the various rulers of the Mali Empire from Mansa Musa I (1280 – 1337)
to Mahmud IV (1590s–1600s) (“Mali Empire,” 2014) will be
mentioned, but the focus will be on Mansa Musa 1
(1280 – 1337) and his royal visit to Cairo during his Hajj
to Mecca. There is also a focus on his brother Mansa Suleyman (1341 – 1360) and the
historic visit of Ibn Battuta to the Mali Empire.
One of the diplomatic methods Mansa Musa I used to gain support for his reign
and the Mali Empire was gifting gold during royal visits. This is best observed
during his visit to Cairo, while on his Hajj to Mecca. However, giving gold or
money often has a short life and causes damages. One of the damages was the
fall in the value of gold during his visit.
Rulers of the Mali Empire (1312 - 1600s)
Mansa
Musa I (1280 - 1337 AD) was King of the Mali Empire. “According to primary sources, Musa was
appointed deputy of Abubakari II, the king before him, who had reportedly
embarked on an expedition to explore the limits of the Atlantic Ocean, and
never returned.” Being a Muslim, Musa I helped the “growth of Islam in his Empire.” However, he is often
remembered for his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 AD Mansa (“Musa
I,” 2014) and for his gifts of gold during his visit to
Cairo. Mansa Musa I was recently
declared the “richest person in history”, when adjustments were made for
inflation (African
Knowledge, 2014).
“By
the end of Mansa Musa's reign, the Sankoré Masjid had been converted into a
fully staffed Madrassa (Islamic school or in this case university) with the
largest collections of books in Africa . . . .” Some say that the “level of
learning at Timbuktu's Sankoré University was superior to that of all other
Islamic centers in the world. The Sankoré Masjid was capable of housing 25,000
students and had one of the largest libraries
. . . with between 400,000 to 700,000 manuscripts (African
Knowledge, 2014).
The claim of superiority for the Sankoré
University over other Islamic centers is highly subject to challenges from
Kairaouine University in Fes, Morocco, Zaytuna University in Tunis, Tunisia,
and Al Azhar University in Cairo, Egypt.
The historic account of Mansa Musa I’s visit to
Cairo was gathered shortly after Mansa Musa’s visit to Cairo by Shihab al-Din
ibn Fadl Allah al’Umari. ‘Umari’s account is presented in the paper’s section,
“Mali Traveler in the 14th century: Mansa Musa I,
the ‘Richest Person in History.’”
Maghan
I (1337 – 1341): “Mansa Musa was succeeded by his son, Maghan I. Mansa Maghan I
spent wastefully . . . (“Maghan I,” 2014).
Mansa
Souleyman reigned from 1341 to 1360. He was visit by the Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta in
1352-1353 (“Mansa
Souleyman,” 2014). Ibn Battuta’s report is found in the paper’s section, “Key Moroccan, Travelers from 14th through
the 17th centuries - Ibn
Battuta” section. “Mansa Souleyman took steep measures to put Mali back
into financial shape developing a reputation for miserliness. However, he
proved to be a good and strong ruler despite numerous challenges” (“Mansa
Souleyman,” 2014).
Mansa Camba
reigned from 1360 to 1360,
only 9-month reign (“Mansa Camba,” 2014)
Mari
Djata II reigned from 1360 to 1374. After disposing Mansa Camba, Mari was crowned as Mansa Mari Djata
II in 1360. He ruled oppressively and nearly bankrupted Mali with his
lavish spending.
Musa
II reigned from 1374 to 1387. During his reign, the power of the Mansa (King) was
decreased and Kankoro-Sigui Mari Djata “ran the empire in Musa II's stead.” At “the time of Mansa Musa II's death in
1387, Mali was financially solvent” and “the Mali Empire still controlled some
1.1 million square kilometres of land throughout Western Africa.”
Maghan
II reigned from 1387 to 1389. He was followed by several less know Mansas, who had
successes and failures until the reign of Musa III
Musa
III reigned in 1430 and “saw the first in a string of many great losses to Mali. In 1430,
the Tuareg seized Timbuktu. Three years later, Oualata also fell into
their hands.”
Ouali II
reigned in 1468 when the Songhai Empire “seized Timbuktu.” Because of the loss of
Timbuktu to the Songhai Empire, when Leo Africanus visited Timbuktu in 1526, Timbuktu was no longer part
of the Mali Empire. Quali II was followed by other Mansas, who lost power and
land until Mans Mahmud IV.
Mansa Mahmud IV
reigned the later part of the 16th century and the early part of the
17th century. “Around 1610, Mahmud IV died. Oral tradition states that he had
three sons who fought over Manden's remains. No single person ever ruled Manden
after Mahmud IV's death, resulting in the end of the Mali Empire.” (“Mali
Empire,” 2014)
Mali
Traveler in the 14th century is Mansa Musa I, the “Richest Person in
History.” The most famous traveler of the Mali Empire
was Mansa Musa I, who showed his wealth when he visited Cairo during his Hajj
to Mecca in 1324. Reports say, his “procession reported to include 60,000 men,
12,000 slaves who each carried four-pound gold bars, heralds dressed in silks
who bore gold staffs, organized horses and handled bags. Musa provided all
necessities for the procession, feeding the entire company of men and animals. Also
in the train were 80 camels, which varying reports claim carried between 50 and
300 pounds of gold dust each. He gave away the gold to the poor he met along
his route. Musa not only gave to the cities he passed on the way to Mecca,
including Cairo and Medina, but also traded gold for souvenirs. Furthermore, it
has been recorded that he built a mosque each and every Friday (“Al-Umari.”
2014).
The exact wealth of the Mali Empire is difficult to
reconstruct, but the gold that Mansa Musa I brought to Cairo can be compared to
the weight of gold that Marinid Sultan Abu l-Hasan had in his treasury. Mansa Musa I had 80 camels, which varying reports claim carried between 50 and 300 pounds
Al-Umari (2014). For this review, a weight of 125 pounds per camel will
be use or a total of 10,000 pounds for the total weight of the gold he brought
from Mali to Cairo. According to Ibn
Khaldun, the Marinid Sultan Abu l-Hasan had approximately 100,000 lbs of gold
dinars (700 hundredweight + 300 hundredweight from Tlemcen) (Ibn Khaldun
vol. 1 p. 367-68). This would make gold Mansa Musa brought to Cairo 10% of the
gold wealth of Abu l-Hasan. Without
being able to make an exact comparison, an assumption can be made based of
Mansa Musa I’s giving away of this gold, that the wealth of Mali Empire exceeded the wealth of the
Marinid Dynasty during the 14th century.
As
mentioned, one of the sources for Mansa Musa’s historic Hajj was ‘Umari’s account. “al-Umari visited Cairo shortly after the
Malian Mans Kankan Musa 1’s pilgrimage to Mecca”
(“Chihab al-Umari,” 2014). From al-‘Umari’s interviews of people who were
in Cairo when Mansa Musa I visited, one can gain a glimpse into the wealth of
Musa I, but assume that Musa I’s foreign policy centered around showing and
sharing his personal wealth. The
following is part of Al-Umari’s account:
“From the beginning of my coming to stay in Egypt I heard talk of the
arrival of this sultan Musa on his Pilgrimage and found the Cairenes eager to
recount what they had seem of the Africans’ prodigal spending. I asked
the emir Abu…and he told me of the opulence, manly virtues, and piety of his
sultan. “When I went out to meet him {he said} that is, on behalf of the
mighty sultan al-Malik al-Nasir, he did me extreme honour and treated me with
the greatest courtesy. He addressed me, however, only through an
interpreter despite his perfect ability to speak in the Arabic tongue.
Then he forwarded to the royal treasury many loads of unworked native gold and
other valuables. I tried to persuade him to go up to the Citadel to meet
the sultan, but he refused persistently saying: “I came for the Pilgrimage and
nothing else. I do not wish to mix anything else with my
Pilgrimage.” He had begun to use this argument but I realized that the
audience was repugnant to him because he would be obliged to kiss the ground
and the sultan’s hand. I continue to cajole him and he continued to make
excuses but the sultan’s protocol demanded that I should bring him into the
royal presence, so I kept on at him till he agreed.”
“When we came in the sultan’s presence we said to him: ‘Kiss the ground!’
but he refused outright saying: ‘How may this be?’ Then an intelligent
man who was with him whispered to him something we could not understand and he
said: ‘I make obeisance to God who created me!’ then he prostrated himself and
went forward to the sultan. The sultan half rose to greet him and sat him
by his side. They conversed together for a long time, then sultan Musa
went out. The sultan sent to him several complete suits of honour for himself,
his courtiers, and all those who had come with him, and saddled and bridled
horses for himself and his chief courtiers….”
“This man [Mansa Musa] flooded Cairo with his benefactions. He left
no court emir nor holder of a royal office without the gift of a load of gold.
The Cairenes made incalculable profits out of him and his suite in buying and
selling and giving and taking. They exchanged gold until they depressed
its value in Egypt and caused its price to fall . . . .”
“Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The
mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from
that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till
now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This
has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason
of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and spent there
Al-Umari” (2014).
Introduction to
21st Century Morocco and Mali
21st
century Morocco and Mali are far different from the14th century Marinid Morocco
and Mansa Musa I’s Mali. For this reason it’s difficult to do a simple
comparison without assuming that in the 14th century Mansa Musa I’s
wealth exceeded the wealth of the Marinid rulers during the 14th
century and assuming that a simple comparison of the 21st century
can be made by comparing the estimated 2013 GDP of Morocco and Mali.
Besides
economic changes in Morocco and Mali from the 14th to the 21st
century, there have been changes in the international relation programs of both
countries. In the early14th
century, instead of creating a friendly international relations program,
Morocco’s Marinid leaders used conquest to extend their wealth and control
their neighbors, while Mansa Musa I bought friendship with gold. In the 21st
century, under the direction of King Mohammed VI, Morocco is using economic
wealth to not only benefit its citizens, but to also strengthen Mali and other
sub-Sahara countries. In the 21st century, under the direction of
President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, Mali
has been “active in regional organizations such
as the African Union” and working “to control and resolve regional conflicts,
such as in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, is one of Mali's major
foreign policy goals” (“Foreign Relations of Mali,” 2014)The actions of
King Mohammed VI Keita helps create a more lasting relationship than Mansa Musa
I was able to create with gold (money) alone. Although both Morocco and Mali
have foreign interactions, this section focuses on what Morocco is doing with
Mali and other Sub-Sahara countries.
GDP and Exports
of Morocco and Mali in the 21st Century: In the 21st
century Morocco’s wealth, based GDP (Gross Domestic Product), exceeds Mali’s
wealth. Morocco’s “GDP (purchasing power parity)” was estimated to be “$180
billion,” which made Morocco number “60” in the world (Morocco Factbook, 2014). Mali’s “GDP (purchasing power parity)” was
estimated to be “$18.9 billion,” which is number “138” in the world (Mali
Factbook, 2014). With the increase “purchasing power parity” that Morocco has
over Mali, Morocco has developed international relations programs that not only
help Morocco, but also help people in Mali and other Sub-Sahara countries.
Morocco and
King Mohammed VI’s Foreign Interaction Program
In the 21st
century, King Mohammed VI has encouraged plans for the internal and
international growth of Morocco. These growth plans have resulted in increased
interactions between Morocco, Mali, and other African and non-African
countries. This friendly interactions exceed similar interactions by Marinid, Wattasides, Saadian,
and previous Alaouite rulers in the 14th to the 17th centuries.
They include:
1) the activities of King Mohammed VI and President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita of Mali, who
are working together on specific plans for financial and educational support to
this region and 2) the activities that surround making Morocco the “Gateway to
North Africa and the Sub-Sahara.”
The 2011
Moroccan Constitution is the new foundation for growth in Morocco and assisting
foreign counties. Some of the actions that strengthen Morocco and open
interactions between Morocco and other countries are: 1) the “Head of Government and the Parliament”
have “broad legislative powers,” 2) independent agencies are established to
guarantee civil and human rights protections,” and 3) independent judiciary is
established, which includes “recognition of Morocco’s cultural identity of
diverse ethnicities, religions, languages, and traditions” (Moroccan
Constitution, 2014).
Concerning the 2011 Constitution, Ambassador
Bouhlal, Morocco’s Ambassador to the USA, noted that the Constitution
protects religious diversity in Morocco by re-confirming King Mohammed VI as
“Commander of the Faithful,” which allows him to “organize the training for
Imams” for Morocco and other Muslim countries to help protect the citizens from
radical teachings (Bouhlal, Rachad, (2014).
King
Mohammed VI of Morocco and President Keita of Mali: King
Mohammed VI has shown his commitment to consolidating Morocco’s ties with all
sub-Saharan partners with a multi-faceted strategy. Supporting his commitment
is his official visits to Bamako, Mali in February 2014, which was less than
six months after he attended the inauguration of Malian President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita in September
2013.
Moroccan-Malian relations are
presently taking a new turn following the signing of several agreement investments,
in various sectors, including hydraulics, construction, agriculture,
infrastructure, mining, energy, vocational training,
telecommunications, insurance and banking, housing, health and
education, thus confirming the strong ties between the two African
nations. (Morocco-Mali, 2014)
Concerning
Morocco’s activities in Mali and Sub-Sahara Africa, Ambassador Bouhlal noted
during a recent discussion that Morocco has created a program of building
apartments for the poor, called, “Cities without slums.” This program is with
support of private investors. Another program for Mali and Islamic countries is
a training program for Imams. A second program offers classes in Morocco on
basic principles of the Quran, which teaches people to help others and not
injure them. Mixed with lessons on Islam are lessons on Christianity and
Judaism. One of the goals of this training is to eliminate groups, who don’t
understand that the Quran teaches people to be good and kind to other (Bouhlal, Rachad, 2014).
Morocco the
“Gateway to North Africa:” Morocco has expanded its technical and functional
infrastructures as it has developed its “Gateway” to North Africa and the
Sub-Sahara. Technical structures
“support a society, such as roads, bridges, water supply, sewers, electrical
grids, telecommunication, and so forth.”
Functional infrastructures “facilitates the production of goods and
services, and also the distribution of finished products to markets, as well as
basic social services such as schools and hospitals” (“Infrastructure,” 2014).
Technical
structures: For decades, Morocco has had “large-scale projects aimed at
elevating its infrastructure to international standards.” Some of the major
structures which help Morocco have a “World Class” infrastructure are: 1)
“Tanger-Med Port . . . with a total capacity of over 3 million containers. (8
million in 2016),” 2) “the highway network will pass from a length of
1500 km in 2010 to 1800 km in 2015,” 3) “the 15 international
airports in . . . are used by a multitude of international companies and
are connected to major cities and economic platforms of world affairs,” and 4)
“Telecommunications infrastructure meeting international standards” (Invest in
Morocco (2014).
In 2013
Morocco’s Honorary Consuls to the USA, were trained at Tanger “Port Med” by
Najlaa Diouri, the Director General at Tanger Med Port Authority. Director
Diouri emphasized that “Port Med” not only helped Morocco service the different
businesses and people in Morocco, but it also benefited Morocco’s neighbors,
because it increased the speed of imports and exports to Morocco and its
neighbors. (Djouri, 2013).
Functional
Services: Functional infrastructure can be broken into
three groupings: 1) “production of goods and services”, 2) “distributor of
finished products to markets”, and 3)“basic social services such as schools and
hospitals” (“Infrastructure,” 2014), “Production of goods and services” is
focused around Morocco’s marketing advantages of “offshoring”, “Automobile”,
Aeronautic”, “Electronics, Textile & Leather, and Food Industry.
“Distributor of finished products” is supported by the emergence of industry (National
Pact, 2015).
Honorary
Consuls of Morocco’s Working Visit to Morocco November 2013: November
3rd to 7th, 2013: The Honorary Consuls of Morocco in the USA had a
"working visit" to Morocco that was sponsored by the Embassy of
Morocco in Washington DC. During the working visit, the Honorary Consuls
were trained by Mr. Nasser Bourita, Secretary
General of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, Ms. Mbarka Bouaida,
Minister Delegate of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, Mrs. Maaroufi, Director,
National Tourism Board, Mr. Driss Guerraoui, secrétaire général du Conseil
économique et social (CES), Mr. Moulay Hafid Elalami, Minister of Industry,
Trade, Investment and Digital Economy, Ms. Najlaa Diouri, Director General at
Tanger Med Port Authority and other key officials in each Ministry. Every
Minister and Director emphasized Morocco’s goal of strengthening Morocco and
making it a gateway to Africa. Mr. Moulay Hafid Elalami, Minister of Industry,
Trade, Investment and Digital Economy also emphasized the importance of
improving education in Morocco (Elalami, 2013).
At the foundation of the national plan for developing Morocco
and making it a “Gateway” to sub-Sahara Africa is the speech of “His
Majesty King Mohammed VI on the occasion of the 55th Anniversary of the
Revolution of the King and The People August 20, 2008.” In this speech, the
King noted that, "institutional reform can succeed only if
supported by further structural reforms or that should enable us to strengthen
our economic and social benefits, giving a new impetus to key sectors,
including those of education, agriculture, energy, water, and industrial
development.”
During a
meeting in Washington DC May 2014, Ambassador Rachid Bouhlal explained the
current development of Morocco. In attendance were Ambassador Bouhlal, former
Ambassador John Price, a Utah entrepreneur, Mrs. Price, Mr. Nabigha Hajji,
Morocco Embassy Economic Counselor, and Honorary Consul Keith Martin. The
Ambassador emphasized that: 1) the last constitution gave more powers to the
House and government. 2) King Mohammed VI maintained his responsibility of
“Commander of the Faithful” to help him protect religious freedom and organize
religious training, 3) Morocco has increased school attendance 48% by creative
programs that motivate parents to send their children to school, provide more
schools, and provide more teachers, 4) Morocco is experiencing an increase in
exports to the US with various Moroccan products, 5) Morocco is working on
infrastructure for industry, education, and manufacturing, 6) Banks are making
money available for small business, 7) the Moroccan Army is not involved in
politics and economics, so they can focus on the job of protecting the country
as needed, 8) Morocco is stable because the King and government officials
listen to the people, make reforms, promote equal rights for men, women, and
Amazighs, make housing a prime focus for all citizens, and offer skill training
for the poor, 9) Morocco has created an Imam school, which is open to
Moroccans, Imams from Mali and other Imams outside Morocco. This school teaches
the fine points of Islam and encourages people to be good and embrace the
values taught in Christianity and Judaism, 10) Morocco is helping Mali and
selected African countries with agriculture education, factories for
fertilizer, and factories for cement, and 11) Morocco is helping Mali and
selected areas of Africa, with the assistance of private investors, in a
program called, “Cities without slums,” which build apartments for the poor in
Mali (Bouhlal, 2014).
King Mohammed VI Verses Mansa Musa: King Mohammed VI has a financial and
training program for Mali and selected African countries which is developing a
long relationship while strengthening neighboring countries. Mansa Musa I’s main program was to give gold,
without an additional training program;
this program ended relationships when the gold stopped coming to neighboring
countries. In contrast, King Mohammed
VI has developed a lasting program for selected neighboring countries, which
gives financial help mixed with training, makes good foreign relations a base
for a long life interaction, which isn’t founded on money without training,
and doesn’t emphasize wealth differences
between Morocco and a neighboring country.
Morocco and the
Non-African Country of the USA: In addition to what the King in doing in
Africa, he is reaching out to European nations and the USA. The King visited President Obama November 22,
2013 and there was a “Joint Statement by the United States of America and the
Kingdom of Morocco” issued “at the conclusion of this meeting. In the “Joint
Statement, “President Obama and His Majesty King Mohammed VI reaffirmed the
strong and mutually beneficial partnership and strategic alliance between the
United States and the Kingdom of Morocco. The two leaders stressed that
this important visit provides an opportunity to map out a new and ambitious
plan for the strategic partnership and pledged to advance our shared priorities
of a secure, stable, and prosperous Maghreb, Africa, and Middle East.
The two leaders also emphasized our shared values, mutual trust, common
interests, and strong friendship, as reflected throughout our partnership” President Obama and His Majesty King Mohammed
VI (2013).
In
the state of Utah Marrakesh born Dr. Mohammed Sbia is working with Moroccan Princess Lalla Zineb,
President of The Moroccan League for Childhood Protection, Marrakesh Professor
Mohamed Knidiri, numerous individuals in Morocco, Utah citizens, the Salt Lake
Rotary (Utah), and numerous individuals in Utah, to establish a “Neuro-rehabilitation care which is affecting a diverse
patient population in Morocco: Children and Adults with neurological
disabilities, patients with traumatic brain injuries (TBI), stroke related
disabilities and spinal cord injuries. The joint efforts by Utahns and
Moroccans to create this center is founded on expectations that Moroccans and Utahns
have for Morocco’s future (Sbia, 2014).
Conclusion
The reason this
paper focuses on the organization and development of the Moroccan Dynasty and
the Mali Empire rulers during the 14th to 17th centuries,
is to establish a baseline for comparing Morocco and the Mali Empire during
the14th to 17th centuries with the 21st century Morocco
and Mali. One of the biggest differences between these time periods is the
cooperation between Morocco and Mali.
In the 14th
century, Morocco placed more emphasis on the Maghreb and Spain than on trying
to help citizens in the Mali Empire. This is one of the reasons Ibn Khaldun made
few comments on the Mali Empire, Ibn Battuta looked at Mali through the eyes of
a tourist and expected expensive gifts, and other tourists who visited the Mali
Empire only evaluated Mali through its extensive library.
In
the 21st century King Mohammed VI is reaching out to Mali and other
Sub-Sahara countries to secure the borders, build Mali and other selected
African countries, and develop “Morocco as the Gateway to Africa.”
Bibliography
Abu al-Hasan (2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May
27, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_Ali_ibn_Othman
Abu Inan Faris
(2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 27, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Inan_Faris)
African Knowledge (2014). “Mansa Musa”, Retrieved June 3, 2014,
from http://africanknowledge.com/MendeMansaMusa.aspx
Alaouite Dynasty
(2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 27, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaouite_dynasty
Al-Umari (2014), BU African Studies Center Kingdom of Mali Primary Source
Documents, Retrived May 28, 2014, from http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/resources/k_o_mali/
Al-Umari (2014). In Wikipedia.
Retrieved May 23, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chihab_al-Umari
Bouhlal, Rachad, (2014) Personal discussion of
Ambassador Bouhlal, Ambassador John Price, Marcia Price, Nabigha Hajji,
Economic Counselor, and Honorary Consul Keith Martin PhD, Washington DC, May 6,
2014
Djouri, Najlaa, Director General at Tanger Med Port Authority
(2013) Personal Notes from training of Morocco’s Honorary Consuls to the USA at
“Port Med” Nov. 5, 2013.
Elalami, Moulay Hafid, Minister of Industry . . . Morocco (2013)
Personal Notes from training of Morocco’s Honorary Consuls to the USA at Rabat,
Morocco November 4, 2013.
Foreign Relations of Mali (2014) In Wikipedia
Retrieved June 6, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Mali
Hundredweight
(2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 27, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundredweight
Ibn Battuta (1929), Ibn
Battuta, Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354, e-book, accessed May 27, 2014, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.asp and http://historyandcivilization.homestead.com/Ibn_Battuta_1325-1354_Travels_in_Asia_and_Africa.pdf
Ibn Battuta (2004), The Travels of Ibn Battuta in the Near East, Asia and Africa
1325-1354, trans. By The Rev. Samuel Lee, B.D., Dover Publications, Inc.
Mineola, New York, 2004
Ibn Battuta (2014). In Wikipedia.
Retrieved May 27, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Battuta
Ibn Khaldun (1967),The
Muqaddima An Introduction to History, Translated from the Arabic by Franz
Rosenthal in three volumes, Bollingern Series XLIII, Princeton University
Press, 1967, Bollinger Foundation, New York, N. Y.
Ibn Khaldun (2014). In Wikipedia.
Retrieved May 27, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun
Infrastructure
(2014) In Wikipedia. Retrieved June 6, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure
Invest in Morocco (2014) In The Moroccan Investment and
Development Agency (MIDA).Retrieved June 6, 2014, from http://www.invest.gov.ma/?Id=6&lang=en
Leo Africanus (1896), (Al-Hassan Ibn-Mohammed
Al-Wezaz Al-Fasi, A Moor, Baptised as Giovanni Leone, But Better Known As Leo
Africanus) , The History and Description of Africa and of the Notable Things
Therein Contained, Translated by John Pory in 1600, London, Printed for Hakluyt
Society by Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.D., 1896 e-book, accessed May 27, 2014, from
https://archive.org/details/historyanddescr01porygoog
Leo Africanus (2014) In Wikipedia.
Retrieved May 23, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Africanus
Mali Empire (2014), In Wikipedia
Retrieved May 28, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali_Empire
Mansa Camba (2014). In Wikipedia.
Retrieved May 23, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassa_(mansa)
Mansa Musa I (2014). In Wikipedia.
Retrieved May 23, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musa_I_of_Mali
Mansa Souleyman
(2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 23, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Souleyman
Marinid Dynasty (2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 27,
2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinid_dynasty Moroccan
Embassy DC (2014), retrieved May 27, 2014, from
Morocco Factbook (2014) In The World Factbook.
Retrieved June 6, 2014, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/mo.html
Mali Factbook (2014) In The World Factbook.
Retrieved June 6, 2014, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ml.html
Moroccan Constitution (2014) In Morocco on the
Move. Retrieved June 6, 2014, from http://moroccoonthemove.com/reform/moroccan-constitution/#sthash.srt39L7t.dpuf
Morocco-Mali (2014), Correspondence from Mahfoud
Bahbouhi, minister Counselfor, Embassy of the Kingdom of Morocco, March 12, 2014
to Keith W. Martin PhD, Honorary Consul for Morocco in Utah
National Pact for the Emerging Industrial (2014) In Emergence
for Kingdom of Morocco, Retrieved June 6, 2014, from http://www.emergence.gov.ma/en/Pacte/Pages/LePacte.aspx
President Obama and His Majesty King Mohammed
VI (2013), “Joint Statement, “President Obama and His Majesty King Mohammed VI
reaffirmed the strong and mutually beneficial partnership and strategic
alliance between the United States and the Kingdom of Morocco.” Retrieved June
6, 2014 from the White House, President Obama http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/11/22/joint-statement-united-states-america-and-kingdom-morocco and the Kingdom of Morocco, King Mohammed VI http://www.maroc.ma/en/content/hm-king-mohammed-vi-official-visit-united-states-america
Saadi Dynasty (2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 27, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi_dynasty
Sbia, Mohammed
(2014), Zahra Charity, Retrieved June 6, 2014 from
http://www.zahracharity.org/ZahraLC/
Songhai Empire (2014). In Wikipedia. Retrieved May 27, 2014, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai_Empire
Wattasid Dynasty (2014). In
Wikipedia. Retrieved May 27, 2014, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wattasid_dynasty
